A solar photovoltaic (PV) system is more than its panels: cells in modules generate direct-current (DC) electricity, mounting supports the modules, and power electronics convert and manage the electricity before wiring and protective equipment connect it to a building or the grid. A battery can store energy for later use, but it is optional. The layout depends on the site, system scale, storage choice, and electrical design.
How electricity moves through a PV system
- Sunlight reaches PV cells. Cells are the basic photovoltaic devices and produce DC electricity.
- Cells form modules, and modules form an array. A module—often called a panel—contains connected cells. Multiple modules can be wired together into an array.
- Mounting holds the modules in position. Racking supports the modules on a roof or at ground level; some ground-mounted systems use tracking structures.
- Power electronics convert and manage the output. An inverter converts DC electricity to alternating current (AC) for ordinary household use or connection to the grid.
- Wiring and protective equipment connect the system. Conductors and electrical hardware carry and manage power between the array, inverter, building, and, where applicable, the grid.
This is the basic path, not a single prescribed layout. A residential rooftop array, a commercial installation, and a ground-mounted system can use different mounting and electrical arrangements.
The main components and their roles
PV cells, modules, and arrays
A PV cell is the basic electricity-generating device. Connected cells make a module, and connected modules make an array. The modules generate DC electricity, but panels by themselves are not a complete home system: the installation also needs support structures, electrical conversion, and appropriate connections and protection. The U.S. Department of Energy explains the cell-to-module-to-array relationship in its Solar Photovoltaic Technology Basics.
Mounting structure or racking
Racking supports modules and positions them at the installation site. On a roof, it attaches the system to the roof structure; a ground-mounted array uses a different support arrangement. Ground systems may be fixed or use tracking, which changes the modules’ orientation. The appropriate design depends on the site and project, rather than on a universal rooftop-versus-ground rule. DOE describes these variations in its Solar Photovoltaic Manufacturing Basics.
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Inverter and other power electronics
PV modules produce DC electricity, while ordinary household circuits and the grid use AC. An inverter performs that conversion and may also match electrical characteristics, provide safeguards, and support monitoring or grid interaction. System designs commonly use either a single inverter serving a system or string of modules, or microinverters installed at individual modules.
DOE characterizes a single inverter as generally less expensive, while microinverters allow individual panels to operate independently. That independence can help when modules experience different shading, but it is a design tradeoff—not a guarantee that one arrangement will deliver better economics in every installation. See DOE’s Solar Photovoltaic System Design Basics and Power Electronics and Balance of System Hardware Technologies.
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Electrical balance-of-system equipment
Balance-of-system (BOS) equipment covers the wiring, connections, and protective hardware that make the generating equipment part of a working electrical system. DOE lists wires, disconnects, fuses, and combiner boxes among these components. Depending on the project, system diagrams may also include meters, electrical panels, or transformers; not every installation uses every item, or arranges them in the same way. The specific electrical configuration depends on the system design.
Monitoring
Monitoring functions or equipment help track system performance. Some household inverters provide monitoring and communicate over computer networks, while other designs may use separate monitoring devices. Monitoring is a system function, not a component that has to take one identical physical form in every installation.
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Battery storage, when included
A battery stores electricity for later use. Storage is not required for every grid-connected PV system, but adding it changes the design and may call for battery-compatible or additional power electronics. Whether a battery is appropriate depends in part on whether the project needs energy available later or backup operation during an outage.
Design choices depend on the project
| Choice | What differs | What to consider |
|---|---|---|
| Single inverter or microinverters | A single inverter serves a system or string; microinverters allow independent operation at individual modules. | Cost and whether modules may experience different shading or panel-level conditions. Neither arrangement is a universal winner. |
| Rooftop or ground-mounted array | The support structure and installation arrangement vary by site; ground-mounted systems may be fixed or use tracking. | Site suitability and the mounting design needed for the installation. |
| Without or with battery storage | A system without storage does not store PV energy in a battery for later use; a system with storage includes equipment designed to charge and use a battery. | Whether later use or backup operation is needed, and whether the system is configured for it. |
| Residential, commercial, or larger ground-mounted system | Scale and location can lead to different structures and electrical layouts. | The requirements of the specific building or site; a small residential layout should not be assumed to describe a larger project. |
DOE’s Solar Photovoltaic System Cost Benchmarks describes categories used in PV cost modeling. Those categories are not a consumer quote, so they should not be treated as an installation price.
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What happens when the grid goes out?
Panels alone do not automatically keep a home powered during a grid outage. DOE says residential PV systems generally switch off when grid power is lost, for safety. Operating independently during an outage requires a properly configured inverter and storage. A system with a battery is not necessarily backup-ready unless its components and configuration support that operation. See DOE’s Solar and Resilience Basics.
When a solar panel kit is—and is not—a fit
A solar panel kit can be a way to explore PV components at small scale or for educational purposes. A kit is not automatically suitable for connecting to a home or designing a residential grid-connected system: those projects require equipment and electrical arrangements matched to the site and intended use.
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