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Cement production emits substantial CO₂ because making clinker requires both high-temperature kiln heat and a chemical reaction that releases CO₂ from limestone. Using less clinker, improving kiln energy performance, switching fuels, finding suitable substitute materials and capturing residual CO₂ can all help—but they address different parts of the problem and depend on local materials, standards and costs.
Why does cement production emit so much CO₂?
The emissions come mainly from two sources: the heat needed to make clinker and the chemistry of making it. Clinker is the emissions-intensive intermediate material used in ordinary Portland cement. Because it contributes to both sources, reducing how much clinker is needed per unit of cement or concrete is a central way to reduce production emissions.
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Kiln heat creates fuel emissions
Making clinker requires a kiln operating at high temperatures. Burning fuel to provide that heat releases greenhouse gases. The electricity used by equipment also contributes indirect emissions when it comes from carbon-intensive generation. Better kiln energy performance and lower-emissions energy can reduce these energy-related emissions, although neither changes the chemistry of limestone.
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Limestone is heated as part of clinker production. In calcination, its chemical structure breaks down and releases CO₂. That release is a process emission: it occurs because of the raw material’s chemical transformation, not because a fuel is burned. As a result, switching to renewable electricity or a lower-emissions kiln fuel cannot, by itself, eliminate all cement-production emissions. Reducing clinker demand, substituting suitable materials, or capturing CO₂ are needed to address this remaining source.
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The scale depends on the boundary being measured
The IPCC estimated that cement production emitted 2.1–2.5 gigatonnes of CO₂-equivalent in 2019, equal to 14–17% of global direct industrial greenhouse-gas emissions. This is a dated estimate of direct cement-production emissions, published in 2022—not a measurement of current-year emissions or the full life-cycle footprint of concrete, buildings or infrastructure. Electricity-related emissions are indirect, and emissions from using concrete in a building are not the same accounting boundary as emissions from producing cement.
Why is clinker the key to reducing cement emissions?
Cement and clinker are not interchangeable terms. Clinker is an ingredient produced in the kiln; cement is the binder made from clinker and other materials. A cement with less clinker per unit of product can avoid some of the kiln heat and limestone-processing emissions associated with producing that clinker. The reduction depends on what replaces it and on whether the resulting material meets the requirements of its intended use.
Concrete design also affects how much cement is needed in the first place. If a structure uses more concrete or cement than its function requires, emissions arise upstream from unnecessary material demand. The IPCC identifies material-efficiency opportunities such as using well-made concrete thoughtfully, designing right-sized structures and using prefabricated components where appropriate. The point is not to reduce material regardless of safety or performance, but to avoid using more than the design needs.
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Outbyte Driver Updater FREEScan for outdated or missing drivers - takes under a minuteDriver Scan →Outbyte PC Repair FREERepair Windows errors before they cause bigger problemsFix Now →In its 2022 assessment, the IPCC estimated a potential 24–50% emissions reduction through basic material-efficiency measures that lower clinker demand. This is an assessed potential across measures, not a promised saving for an individual project. Project results depend on design, material choices, performance needs and local constraints.
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What practical measures can lower emissions?
Reduce avoidable cement and concrete demand
Start with the amount of material required. Structural design can avoid excess concrete while still meeting the applicable requirements for strength, durability and safety. Right-sized components and prefabrication can support more efficient use of material in suitable projects. Because material efficiency acts upstream, it can reduce the quantity of emissions-intensive binder needed rather than relying only on changes at the kiln.
Replace some clinker with suitable supplementary materials
Supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) can replace some clinker in cement or concrete mixes. The IPCC discusses blast-furnace slag, coal fly ash and natural pozzolanic materials, as well as ground limestone and calcined clays as substitution routes. These materials are not universally available, and their technical suitability varies. The supply of some SCMs is limited; local building codes also determine which mixes are allowed for particular applications.
The IPCC assesses that substitutions such as ground limestone and calcined clays can reduce process calcination emissions by up to 50% and occasionally more. That figure concerns calcination emissions, not necessarily total life-cycle emissions from cement or concrete. It should not be read as a guaranteed reduction for every formulation or project. A mix must be evaluated against its intended performance and the rules that apply where it will be used.
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A more energy-efficient kiln needs less thermal energy per tonne of clinker. Switching to lower-emissions fuels can also reduce combustion emissions. These measures target the heat-related part of the footprint, so they complement—rather than replace—work to reduce clinker use or deal with calcination. The IEA includes both lower kiln thermal energy intensity and a larger share of low-emissions fuels in its sector pathway.
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Develop alternative binders and raw materials
Alternative binder chemistries or raw materials may reduce emissions by changing the production route or reducing reliance on conventional clinker. But “alternative binder” covers different technologies, not one material with universal performance or availability. Readiness, standards acceptance and suitability depend on the particular binder and application. A project should establish those details for its location and use rather than assume an alternative can be substituted one-for-one.
Capture CO₂ from production
Carbon capture, utilization and storage (CCUS) can address residual emissions from both process chemistry and energy, depending on how the system is designed. It is therefore relevant to emissions that fuel switching alone cannot remove. Capture is not a substitute for reducing avoidable material demand or clinker use; rather, it can be part of a broader approach to emissions that remain after other measures.
Cost is a significant qualification. The IEA’s 2025 report estimates that early commercial near-zero-emissions cement plants using carbon capture have production costs 75–150% higher than conventional plants. The range varies by region and applies to early commercial plants; it is not a universal premium for every capture project or a direct estimate of what a particular buyer will pay.
What do the IEA’s pathway milestones show?
The IEA’s 2023 Net Zero Emissions Guide sets out sector pathway milestones for clinker content and kiln energy intensity. They indicate the direction and scale of change in that pathway; they are not forecasts, mandatory targets for individual plants or universal performance benchmarks.
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| Measure | 2022 | 2030 | 2050 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Clinker-to-cement ratio | 0.71 | 0.65 | 0.57 |
| Kiln thermal energy intensity (GJ per tonne of clinker) | 3.6 | 3.4 | 2.9 |
The falling clinker-to-cement ratio reflects the importance of making cement with less clinker. The declining thermal energy intensity reflects a separate improvement: reducing the kiln heat used for each tonne of clinker. Both changes matter, but neither milestone on its own describes all emissions from a plant. The guide also includes low-emissions fuels and captured CO₂ as parts of the wider sector pathway.
Is the cement sector already reducing its emissions?
The IEA’s 2025 Breakthrough Agenda report says total cement and concrete CO₂ emissions are higher than they were in 2015. It attributes recent reductions to declines in global production, while direct CO₂ intensity remained unchanged. In other words, lower total emissions over a period do not necessarily mean production itself has become less emissions-intensive: output levels and emissions per unit are different measures.
The report identifies material efficiency, alternative fuels, SCMs and carbon capture among the measures needed to reduce both total emissions and intensity. No single option works as a complete solution across every market. A plant’s choices depend on the sources of its emissions, the materials and energy available nearby, the relevant standards and the cost and maturity of possible interventions.
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How should a project or producer choose among the options?
Compare each measure with the emissions source it can address, then check whether it is workable in the project’s location and application. A useful decision sequence is:
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- Set the boundary. Clarify whether the goal concerns cement-production emissions, the embodied emissions of concrete or a wider building life cycle. Keep direct kiln and process emissions distinct from electricity-related emissions.
- Check whether material demand can be reduced. Review the design for unnecessary cement or concrete while preserving required performance and safety. This can reduce demand for clinker before selecting a production technology.
- Assess local clinker substitutes. Identify which SCMs or other suitable materials are available, in what supply, and whether local codes permit their use for the intended application.
- Separate heat improvements from process-emissions measures. Kiln efficiency and fuel changes target energy emissions. Lower clinker content, alternative raw materials or capture are relevant to calcination emissions.
- Check maturity, performance and cost together. Confirm the specific technology’s readiness and standards acceptance. Do not infer a universal cost ranking: the cited assessments do not establish one across all measures, and carbon-capture costs vary by region and project.
- Evaluate the combined pathway. A practical strategy may pair efficient material use and suitable clinker substitution with kiln improvements, lower-emissions fuels and capture for residual emissions. The appropriate combination depends on the plant and market.
What makes a credible emissions-reduction claim?
A useful claim should identify what was reduced and against which boundary. “Lower cement emissions” can mean less CO₂ per tonne of cement, fewer total emissions because less material was produced, lower direct kiln emissions, or a reduction across a concrete or building life cycle. Those are not equivalent outcomes. A reported percentage should also specify whether it applies to calcination emissions, direct production emissions or total life-cycle emissions, and whether it is an assessed potential, a pathway milestone or a measured result.
For buyers and project teams, the most actionable questions are whether a proposed mix or binder meets the required standards, whether the necessary materials are reliably available, and which emissions sources the intervention addresses. For producers, the same distinctions help avoid treating fuel switching as a solution to process emissions or presenting a scenario milestone as a plant-level guarantee.
Frequently Asked Questions
Why does making cement produce so much CO₂?
Two main sources explain the high emissions: fuel burned to provide the kiln heat needed to make clinker, and process CO₂ released when limestone is chemically transformed during calcination. Electricity use can add indirect emissions depending on how it is generated. Because the limestone reaction is not caused by burning fuel, changing fuels or using renewable electricity alone cannot eliminate all production emissions.
How does limestone create emissions in cement production?
Limestone releases CO₂ during calcination, when it is heated and its chemical structure breaks down as part of clinker production. This is a process emission rather than a combustion emission. Reducing clinker demand, substituting suitable materials or capturing CO₂ can address this source; kiln fuel switching by itself cannot.
Can cement be made without clinker?
The research supports reducing the clinker share through suitable substitutes, not a general claim that clinker-free cement is available or appropriate for every use. Options include blast-furnace slag, coal fly ash, natural pozzolanic materials, ground limestone and calcined clays, but supply, technical suitability and local code acceptance vary. Alternative binders also depend on their specific readiness, standards and application.
Can carbon capture make cement production low-carbon?
Carbon capture can address residual process emissions as well as energy-related emissions, depending on system design, so it can form part of a lower-emissions pathway. It is not a standalone answer to avoidable material demand or clinker use. The IEA’s 2025 estimate puts production costs for early commercial near-zero-emissions plants using CCS 75–150% above conventional plants, with variation by region; that is not a universal cost premium.
The Bottom Line
Cement’s emissions come from both kiln heat and limestone calcination, so no single intervention solves the whole problem. Reducing unnecessary material demand and using less clinker can lower emissions upstream; efficient kilns and lower-emissions fuels address combustion; suitable substitutes and carbon capture can help address process emissions. The best combination depends on performance requirements, local supply, standards, technology readiness and cost.
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