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The right ranking depends on the fuel’s feedstock and electricity source, the engine, operating load, methane or ammonia slip, nitrous oxide (N2O), and the boundary used for the comparison. A credible procurement decision therefore needs certified lifecycle carbon intensity—not a fuel label alone.
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What “lowest emissions” means for a ship
Marine-fuel comparisons often produce conflicting answers because they measure different parts of the fuel chain. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) defines life-cycle assessment as measuring greenhouse-gas emissions “from the fuel production to the end-use by a ship (‘Well-to-Wake’).”
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Tank-to-wake (TTW) starts when fuel reaches the vessel. It covers combustion or conversion in the engine and the resulting exhaust. TTW accounting should include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), N2O, nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur oxides (SOx), particulate matter and unburned fuel.
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Well-to-tank
Well-to-tank (WTT) includes extracting or growing the feedstock, processing it, producing hydrogen or electricity where relevant, transporting the fuel and delivering it to the ship. Electricity source is decisive for electrofuels: renewable power can produce a very different result from a fossil-heavy grid.
Well-to-wake
Well-to-wake (WTW) combines WTT and TTW. It is the most useful boundary for choosing a fuel when the objective is climate impact. A fuel can look excellent at the exhaust and still perform poorly overall if its production is carbon-intensive. Conversely, a fuel with some combustion emissions can achieve a low WTW result when its carbon is biogenic or captured and its production energy is renewable.
“Emissions” also has several meanings. Climate ranking concerns greenhouse gases expressed as CO2-equivalent, while port-air-quality decisions may prioritize NOx, SOx and particulate matter. Safety, storage, bunkering, engine availability and supply reliability are separate decision criteria.
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At-a-glance comparison
| Fuel and pathway | Carbon in the fuel | Main TTW issues | Main WTT issue | Climate position |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Fossil LNG | Yes | CO2; methane slip; NOx depends on engine | Methane leakage and liquefaction energy | Can be lower than conventional fuel, but the advantage is highly sensitive to real methane slip |
| Bio-LNG | Biogenic carbon | Methane slip remains an engine issue | Feedstock sustainability, leakage and processing energy | Potentially low, but only with verified feedstock and methane controls |
| Fossil methanol | Fossil carbon | CO2 from combustion | Substantial production emissions | Can be worse than conventional marine fuel on WTW accounting |
| Bio-methanol | Biogenic carbon | CO2 is emitted at combustion | Feedstock origin, land-use effects and processing energy | Potentially low when sustainable feedstock is demonstrated |
| E-methanol | Recycled or captured carbon | CO2 is released at combustion | Electricity source and carbon source determine most upstream emissions | Often among the strongest options when made with additional renewable power and verified captured carbon |
| Grey ammonia | No carbon in the molecule | NOx, ammonia slip and N2O | Hydrogen made from fossil gas without carbon capture | Can be high-emission despite zero direct fuel carbon |
| Blue ammonia | No carbon in the molecule | NOx, ammonia slip and N2O | Residual emissions and methane leakage from fossil hydrogen production | Depends on capture rate, upstream methane and verification |
| Green ammonia | No carbon in the molecule | NOx, ammonia slip and N2O | Renewable electricity and electrolytic hydrogen requirements | Can be among the lowest-WTW options if exhaust N2O and ammonia are controlled |
LNG: lower conventional pollutants, but methane slip decides the climate result
What LNG does well
LNG is mostly methane. Replacing conventional residual fuel or marine gas oil (MGO) with LNG can reduce CO2 formed in the engine because methane contains more hydrogen relative to carbon. DNV’s current environmental-performance guidance reports reductions of up to 23% in greenhouse-gas emissions, up to 80% in NOx, and near-elimination of SOx and particulate matter compared with conventional fuel. Those are upper-bound figures, not guarantees: the result varies with engine technology and operating conditions.
For a construction company operating harbour tugs, dredgers, ferries or offshore-support vessels, the local-air-quality benefit can be material. Low SOx and particulate emissions are useful in ports and near populated work sites, while NOx performance depends on the combustion cycle and after-treatment actually installed.
The methane-slip problem
Methane is a powerful greenhouse gas. If some methane passes through the engine unburned, the climate benefit calculated from lower CO2 can shrink sharply. The International Council on Clean Transportation’s FUMES project measured methane in the exhaust plumes of 18 ships using low-pressure dual-fuel (LPDF) four-stroke LNG engines. The 2024 study found average methane slip of 6.4%.
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That measured average is higher than the 3.1% methane-slip assumption used in European Union regulatory accounting, as reported by ICCT, and the 3.5% assumption used in IMO accounting. Slip was highest at low engine loads—the condition common when a vessel is manoeuvring, waiting, or running auxiliary equipment rather than steaming at design load.
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When LNG can still make sense
- Choose LNG for a documented local-air-quality requirement when SOx and particulate reductions are immediately valuable.
- Require a vessel-specific WTW calculation that uses measured or conservative methane-slip data rather than an optimistic default.
- Check the fuel’s upstream methane leakage, liquefaction energy and delivery route.
- Model the actual load profile, including harbour manoeuvring and low-load hotel or auxiliary operation.
- Do not treat a dual-fuel engine as proof of low emissions; its control strategy and maintenance determine the outcome.
Methanol: the word describes several very different fuels
Why methanol is not automatically low-carbon
Methanol contains carbon, so burning it produces CO2. Lifecycle accounting must establish whether that carbon is fossil, biogenic or captured from another process. The U.S. Maritime Administration’s lifecycle work uses a total-fuel-cycle model that includes upstream emissions, which is essential for a fair comparison.
Fossil methanol made from natural gas or coal carries substantial WTT emissions. In a 2026 bulk-carrier model by Pi-Yen Lin, fossil-based methanol and ammonia pathways produced more than twice the emissions of conventional fuels in the study’s WTW scenarios. The result is pathway-specific, but it demonstrates why a fuel name without a production route is incomplete.
Bio-methanol
Bio-methanol can use sustainable biomass, biogenic waste or other renewable feedstocks. Its advantage depends on how the feedstock is grown or collected, whether land-use change is counted, the energy used in processing and whether methane or other gases escape during production. “Bio” is not a substitute for a certified carbon-intensity value.
E-methanol
E-methanol is synthesized using hydrogen made with electricity and a carbon source such as captured CO2. Its WTW result is strongest when the electricity is genuinely renewable and additional, the carbon source is correctly accounted for, and transport and synthesis energy are included. If a fossil-heavy grid supplies the electrolyser, upstream emissions can dominate the result.
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Because methanol is liquid at ambient conditions, existing liquid-fuel logistics can be simpler than cryogenic LNG or toxic ammonia systems. That practical advantage does not change its climate accounting: combustion CO2, feedstock origin and electricity must still be reported.
Methanol questions to put in a specification
- Is the pathway fossil, bio-based or electro-synthetic?
- What is the certified WTW carbon intensity, and which greenhouse gases and global-warming values were used?
- For bio-methanol, what feedstock, land-use assumptions and chain-of-custody system apply?
- For e-methanol, which electricity-generating assets supply the hydrogen and how is the captured carbon sourced?
- What engine conversion, tank coatings, seals, ventilation and fire-protection changes are required?
Ammonia: zero carbon in the molecule does not mean zero emissions
Why green ammonia is attractive
Ammonia contains no carbon. If it is used as fuel, there is no CO2 released from the ammonia molecule itself during combustion. Green ammonia is made with renewable electricity, electrolytic hydrogen and nitrogen separated from air, so its WTT emissions can be very low.
That advantage is conditional. Grey ammonia uses hydrogen made from fossil gas without carbon capture; blue ammonia adds carbon capture but still depends on capture performance and upstream methane control. Both retain significant WTT emissions.
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Ammonia-fuelled engines can emit NOx, unburned ammonia (ammonia slip) and N2O. N2O is a powerful greenhouse gas, so even a carbon-free fuel can lose much of its apparent climate benefit if combustion or after-treatment creates N2O. Ammonia slip also matters for worker exposure, odour and local air quality.
Pi-Yen Lin’s 2026 bulk-carrier model found that ammonia could deliver up to approximately 70% lower emissions than MGO when N2O was mitigated. The qualification is the point: the reduction is conditional on effective control, not an automatic property of ammonia.
Operational implications
Ammonia is toxic and requires dedicated bunkering procedures, leak detection, ventilation, personal protective equipment, emergency shutdowns and crew training. Tanks, pipework, seals and materials must be designed for ammonia service. A project that selects green ammonia without funding these controls has not completed its emissions or safety plan.
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Published figures: what they do and do not prove
| Finding | What was measured or modelled | How to use it |
|---|---|---|
| 6.4% methane slip | ICCT FUMES, 2024; average from plume measurements on 18 LPDF four-stroke LNG ships | Use as a warning against relying only on regulatory default values; do not assume every engine has the same rate |
| 3.1% methane-slip assumption | European Union regulatory accounting, as reported by ICCT in 2024 | It is an accounting assumption, not a fleet-wide measurement |
| 3.5% methane-slip assumption | IMO accounting, as reported by ICCT in 2024 | It is an accounting assumption, not a guarantee for an individual ship |
| Up to 23% lower GHG emissions | DNV guidance for LNG versus conventional fuel; engine-dependent | Treat as a maximum reported reduction and recalculate for the chosen engine and load profile |
| Up to 80% lower NOx | DNV guidance for LNG versus conventional fuel; engine-dependent | Useful for air-quality planning, but verify the actual engine and after-treatment |
| About 25% lower TTW emissions for LNG | Pi-Yen Lin, 2026; one bulk-carrier model compared with MGO | A model result for a specified vessel, not a universal LNG value |
| Up to about 70% lower emissions for ammonia | Pi-Yen Lin, 2026; conditional on N2O mitigation | Include N2O controls and verification in the design basis |
| More than twofold emissions for fossil methanol and ammonia | Pi-Yen Lin, 2026; WTW scenarios versus conventional fuels | Confirm the exact production pathway before calling either fuel low-carbon |
Is green ammonia better than green methanol?
Neither wins in every project. If both fuels are produced with verified renewable energy and sustainable inputs, green ammonia can have the lower TTW carbon result because its molecule contains no carbon. Green methanol may be easier to store and handle because it is a liquid at ordinary conditions and can fit more familiar bunkering arrangements.
The comparison changes when N2O, ammonia slip, engine efficiency, tank volume, voyage range and fuel availability are included. A green-ammonia project without reliable exhaust controls can underperform a well-certified e-methanol project. A methanol project using fossil methanol is not equivalent to one using e-methanol. Compare certified WTW values for the exact products and engines, not the color names.
How to choose a fuel for a construction or marine fleet
Step 1: Define the emissions objective
Decide whether the project is primarily reducing WTW climate emissions, port NOx and particulate matter, SOx, or a combination. Set separate limits for greenhouse gases and regulated air pollutants; one fuel may not be best at both.
Step 2: Describe the vessel’s real duty cycle
- Record annual hours at sea, manoeuvring, standby and berth.
- Separate main-engine, generator and boiler fuel use.
- Use actual engine loads, not only the rated maximum.
- Include cold starts, port calls and seasonal changes.
Step 3: Demand a pathway-specific WTW calculation
Require the supplier to identify feedstock, electricity source, production site, transport legs, storage losses and delivery method. The calculation should include CO2, CH4 and N2O and state the global-warming-potential values, allocation rules and certification scheme.
Step 4: Model the engine and controls
For LNG, enter methane slip by engine type and load. For methanol, include combustion CO2 and any pilot fuel. For ammonia, include NOx, ammonia slip and N2O with the proposed after-treatment. Ask for test data at the loads your vessel actually uses.
Step 5: Check fuel logistics and safety
Confirm tank capacity, range, bunkering frequency, port permissions, emergency response, crew competence, ventilation, detection and firefighting systems. A theoretical carbon advantage is not deliverable if the fuel cannot be supplied reliably or safely.
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Step 6: Lock in measurement and reporting
Write fuel origin, minimum carbon intensity, methane-slip or N2O performance, sampling method and corrective action into the contract. Require meter data and periodic verification rather than relying on a one-time certificate.
Common mistakes and how to avoid them
Comparing TTW for one fuel with WTW for another
Use the same boundary for every option. If the comparison is WTW, include production and transport for all fuels; if it is TTW, label the result clearly and do not call it a lifecycle ranking.
Treating “green,” “blue” or “bio” as proof
These labels describe an intended pathway, not a measured emissions value. Request feedstock evidence, electricity provenance, carbon capture performance and chain-of-custody documentation.
Using average engine data for a low-load vessel
LNG methane slip is particularly sensitive to low load. Use the vessel’s operating profile and insist on load-specific data.
Ignoring non-CO2 gases
CH4 can change LNG’s ranking; N2O can change ammonia’s. Both must be in the same CO2-equivalent calculation.
Choosing a fuel before checking the port
Bunkering equipment, exclusion zones, emergency procedures and local approvals can determine whether a technically attractive fuel is practical for a workboat or construction vessel.
Decision rule
For the lowest potential WTW climate emissions, start by comparing certified e-methanol and green ammonia made with renewable electricity. Select between them using vessel-specific engine data, N2O and ammonia-slip controls, storage and bunkering capability, and supply reliability.
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Use LNG when its local-air-quality benefits or transitional role justify it and when real methane-slip data, upstream leakage and the vessel’s low-load operation are included. Do not assume fossil LNG is the lowest-emission option simply because its exhaust contains less CO2. Treat fossil methanol and grey ammonia as high-risk choices for climate claims unless a verified lifecycle calculation shows otherwise.
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