China’s large-scale campaign to build up seven Spratly reefs and maritime features began in 2014 and was mostly complete by late 2015—not after 12 years of continuous construction. Japan’s Ministry of Defense reported about 12.9 square kilometres of reclamation across the seven features by late 2015. The work created large artificial outposts on existing reefs; it did not turn them into naturally formed islands under the law of the sea.
What China built—and when
The phrase “after 12 years” can describe the interval from the start of the major campaign in 2014 to 2026, but it is misleading if it suggests that the original seven-site reclamation effort lasted 12 years. Japan’s Ministry of Defense says large-scale reclamation began in 2014 and was mostly complete by late 2015. Infrastructure development continued after the reclamation campaign.
The seven features were Mischief Reef, Subi Reef, Fiery Cross Reef, Cuarteron Reef, Johnson South Reef, Hughes Reef (also called McKennan Reef in some sources), and Gaven Reef. These were reefs or other maritime features that China occupied and expanded; “entirely new islands” obscures that the artificial land was built on top of existing features.
Japan’s Ministry of Defense reported approximately 12.9 square kilometres—about 1,290 hectares—of reclamation across the seven features by late 2015. That figure describes the reclaimed area, not the total area of the surrounding reefs or the amount of construction completed afterward.
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How dredging and land filling created the outposts
Reclamation is not simply pouring sand into open water. In its 2026 account, the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) describes cutter-suction dredgers cutting into reef structures and pumping sediment through floating pipelines to build artificial land. The resulting surface can support further construction, but the process physically alters the reef beneath and around it.
The large Spratly campaign and later activity reported at Antelope Reef are separate episodes. CSIS says satellite imagery showed dredging at Antelope Reef, in the Paracel Islands, beginning in October 2025. It estimates the project’s area at roughly 1,500 acres. That is a secondary-source estimate; its measurement and current status were not independently confirmed against primary imagery or data in the sources cited here.
Do artificial islands create territorial waters?
No. Under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), an island is naturally formed land above water at high tide. Article 60 says artificial islands, installations, and structures do not possess the status of islands. The Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative’s explanation of the treaty notes that artificial islands in an exclusive economic zone do not generate their own territorial sea or EEZ. The Convention allows limited safety zones around qualifying installations, which are distinct from maritime zones generated by a natural island.
| Feature type | What determines the category | Maritime significance described in the cited sources |
|---|---|---|
| Naturally formed island | Land naturally formed and above water at high tide | UNCLOS treats it as an island; the specific entitlements depend on the applicable rules and the feature’s characteristics. |
| Artificial island or installation | Land or a structure created through reclamation or construction | It does not have island status and does not generate its own territorial sea or EEZ. A qualifying installation may have a limited safety zone. |
This distinction is why visible size and infrastructure do not settle the legal status of a feature. Reclamation can change a reef physically, but it does not change an artificial outpost into naturally formed land for UNCLOS purposes.
What China claims—and what the 2016 arbitration decided
China’s government claims sovereignty over the South China Sea island groups and associated maritime rights, including historic rights. In a July 12, 2016 statement, the Chinese government said it had sovereignty over Nanhai Zhudao, naming Dongsha Qundao, Xisha Qundao, Zhongsha Qundao, and Nansha Qundao. That statement establishes China’s official position; it does not, by itself, settle disputed sovereignty or create maritime entitlements under UNCLOS.
The 2016 Philippines–China arbitration concerned maritime entitlements and obligations under UNCLOS. It did not decide who holds sovereignty over the land features. As CSIS summarizes the tribunal’s environmental findings, China failed to protect and preserve the South China Sea’s marine environment. The ruling should therefore not be described as awarding territorial ownership of the Spratly Islands to either party.
Independent reader supportYour contribution helps us test, update, and keep practical guides available for everyone.How much reef was damaged?
CSIS’s 2026 analysis reports that the tribunal attributed approximately 3,170 acres of coral reef damage by 2016 to reclamation and land filling. That figure is the tribunal’s finding as summarized by CSIS, not a fresh measurement in the 2026 article.
The same CSIS analysis reports an Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative estimate of approximately 6,224 acres of coral reef destruction from island-building activity. This is a secondary-source estimate reported by CSIS, rather than a figure independently verified here from primary measurements. The two numbers come from different assessments and should not be treated as interchangeable: one is the tribunal’s estimate of damage by 2016, while the other is a later estimate of destruction from island-building activity.
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