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Embodied carbon in enclosure materials is the greenhouse-gas impact associated with the products and systems that separate a building’s interior from the outdoors. There is no evidence-based universal ranking of “lowest-carbon” materials: a fair comparison requires equivalent assemblies, aligned lifecycle boundaries and functional units, and data suited to the products and project being assessed.
That means comparing more than a material label or a single product-stage figure. Define what is included, use product-specific environmental product declarations (EPDs) where appropriate, and account for performance, service life, transport, replacement and end-of-life assumptions. The result is a decision grounded in the building’s requirements—not a misleading league table.
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What counts as an enclosure material?
An enclosure is the part of a building that separates its interior from the exterior. In its embodied-carbon rules, NABERS includes windows, doors, roofs, exterior walls, exterior cladding and curtain wall in the enclosure scope. NABERS Embodied Carbon Rules v2.1 provide a useful scope reference, though project requirements and assessment rules vary by jurisdiction.
The word “material” can obscure what a comparison actually covers. An exterior wall is rarely just its cladding: depending on the design, its assembly may include a structural frame or backing, insulation, membranes, fixings, finishes and openings. A roof can likewise combine structure, insulation, membranes and finishes. Make clear whether the assessment covers a complete assembly, a component within it, or only a particular product. Do not compare an assembly total with a single-product result as though they described the same thing.
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Set that boundary before collecting data. If windows and doors are in scope, identify whether their frames, glazing and associated components are represented. If they are excluded, say so. The same discipline applies to foundations, internal finishes and other parts of the building: their inclusion or exclusion can change the result, so a reader should be able to see what the enclosure calculation does and does not represent.
Why is there no universally lowest-carbon enclosure material?
A material name alone cannot determine the embodied carbon of a building enclosure. Results vary with product formulation, manufacturing process and energy, recycled content, geography, transport, design choices and end-of-life assumptions. A result for one product—or one assembly—does not establish a ranking for every product in that category.
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The more defensible question is: Which of the assemblies that meet this project’s requirements has the lower assessed impact over the defined lifecycle? That question makes the relevant trade-offs visible. An assembly with lower product-stage emissions might require more frequent replacement, perform poorly in the local climate or alter operational-energy demand. Conversely, an assembly with more impact at production could have a longer service life or support better operational performance. The available evidence does not justify deciding by material name alone.
How do I make a fair comparison?
Compare alternatives that deliver equivalent functions, and make the basis of comparison explicit. The functional unit should describe the amount of building service being compared—not just the mass of a material if the alternatives do not provide the same service.
- Define the scope. List the enclosure elements included and whether each result covers a product or a whole assembly. Include relevant layers and openings consistently across options.
- Set equivalent performance requirements. Identify the thermal, airtightness, moisture-management, fire, acoustic and structural requirements that apply. Not every project needs every criterion, but an alternative cannot be treated as equivalent if it fails a material requirement.
- Choose a functional unit. State what the result represents—for example, a defined area of enclosure providing a specified function—and apply the same basis to all options. Report units clearly, such as kgCO₂e per stated functional unit.
- Align lifecycle modules. Show which stages are included. Product-stage modules A1–A3 are not the same boundary as a result that also includes transport to site, construction, replacement during use and end-of-life impacts. Do not treat totals with different module coverage as directly comparable.
- Check the data behind each result. Record whether the source is product-specific or generic, whether an EPD is independently verified, and how well its geography, technology and reference period match the project.
- Adjust project scenarios where needed. Check whether the EPD’s transport, installation and end-of-life assumptions represent the actual project. Where they do not, use appropriate project-specific scenarios or calculate those modules separately.
- Review service life and whole-building effects. Consider durability, maintenance, repairability, replacement frequency, circularity and operational-energy consequences—not just the initial product-stage total.
Keep the assumptions beside the results. A comparison table that lists a carbon figure without its functional unit, included modules and data source is hard to interpret and easy to misuse.
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Which lifecycle stages should an enclosure assessment include?
At minimum, identify the lifecycle boundary behind every figure. Product-stage results commonly refer to A1–A3; transport to the project and construction-stage impacts are distinct considerations, as are replacement during use and end-of-life impacts. A1–A3-only results can be useful for a defined question, but they do not describe the same scope as a broader whole-life result.
For a project-specific assessment, the EPD’s modeled assumptions may not reflect actual transport distances, installation practices or end-of-life routes. RICS says these project conditions may need to be adjusted or calculated for the project. Its Whole life carbon assessment for the built environment, 2nd edition also emphasizes using data appropriate to the design stage and stating its source, territorial scope and basis.
Replacement matters because two products with different service lives can have different whole-life implications even if their initial product-stage figures are similar. Maintenance and repair can also affect how long an assembly remains fit for purpose. Use project-appropriate service-life assumptions and make them visible; do not silently assume that an initial production figure tells the whole story.
End-of-life results depend on the modeled route and accounting approach. Reuse or recycling may be possible, but a potential future recovery route is not the same as a guaranteed outcome. State the assumptions used, and avoid crediting an assembly for recovery that the project’s scenario does not substantiate.
How should I use EPDs and generic data?
An EPD is a lifecycle information document, not a certificate that a product has low embodied carbon. NABERS defines an EPD as a third-party-verified and registered document communicating transparent, comparable environmental information across a product’s lifecycle; its rules specify ISO 14025 and either EN 15804 or ISO 21930. RICS prefers independently verified EPDs and states: “Any EPD should be independently verified according to ISO 14025, with third-party verification preferred.”
Use the most specific data available for the decision stage. At early design, exact products may not yet be selected, so fit-for-purpose generic factors can help compare design options. When a product is selected later, RICS says the first choice should be an EPD for the actual manufacturer and product. As a project moves through technical design, construction and post-completion, the assessment should use specific product information where it is available and appropriate.
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Specificity alone does not guarantee a good match. Check the product and declared basis, the EPD’s lifecycle modules and assumptions, and whether the geography and technology are relevant. RICS cautions that differences in geography or technology reduce confidence. Record the source, territorial scope and basis so someone reviewing the assessment can understand what the number represents.
For UK assessors, RICS identifies the Built Environment Carbon Database as a first reference for construction-material carbon data. The appropriate database and rules depend on location; a UK reference should not automatically be treated as the right dataset for an Australian, North American or other project. Local codes, databases, product availability and project conditions differ.
What should I make of timber, wood fibre and cork?
Historic England identifies timber, wood fibre and cork insulation as material categories that can sequester more carbon than is emitted during production, acting as net carbon stores. That is a useful reason to investigate these options, not proof that every product or complete assembly is net-negative over its whole life.
For a particular product, check its EPD and how it accounts for biogenic carbon. Also examine sourcing, expected service life and the assumed end-of-life scenario. Carbon stored in a product during one stage does not, by itself, show what happens over the full lifecycle or whether the assembly meets the project’s functional requirements.
A wood-fibre insulation board, for example, is a product category worth assessing within an appropriate enclosure design. It is not a blanket low-carbon recommendation: the exact product data, assembly, availability and project conditions still matter. Compare it with alternatives that provide equivalent performance and use consistent lifecycle assumptions.
The scale of EPD availability also helps explain why product-specific comparisons are increasingly possible, but it does not make unlike declarations comparable. Historic England reported 130,000 construction-product EPDs globally in 2023, including more than 40,000 European construction-product EPDs compliant with BS EN 15804:2012+A2:2019. Those are counts of declarations, not evidence that one material category has lower impacts than another.
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Can embodied-energy figures stand in for carbon?
No. Embodied energy and embodied carbon are related concepts, but they are different measures. Energy figures should not be relabeled or converted into kgCO₂e without appropriate emissions data and a stated calculation basis.
For example, YourHome’s Australian material guidance lists double glazing at 66.8 MJ/kg and glasswool insulation at 57.5 MJ/kg. These are embodied-energy values, not embodied-carbon figures, so they cannot establish a carbon ranking between those products or between enclosure materials generally. The guidance also notes that results vary with production location and process, energy source, transport and recycled content.
YourHome remains useful for understanding why production and supply conditions matter, and for considering how design choices interact with energy use. It cautions that a lower embodied-energy choice may raise operational energy, and that thermal mass can help or hinder depending on design and climate. Use that as a reminder to assess the whole-building effect, not as permission to substitute energy figures for carbon data.
Independent reader supportYour contribution helps us test, update, and keep practical guides available for everyone.What should the comparison report show?
A useful report lets another person understand both the result and its limits. For each option, show the assembly description, functional unit, performance requirements, carbon result and lifecycle modules included. Identify the EPD or other data source, whether it is product-specific or generic, its verification status and its geographic and technological fit.
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Keep conclusions proportional to the evidence. It is reasonable to say that one modeled assembly has a lower result than another under stated assumptions. It is not reasonable to turn that result into a universal claim that a material is the lowest-carbon choice for every building, climate, product and lifecycle boundary.
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How do I turn the assessment into a design decision?
First eliminate options that do not meet required building performance or compliance needs. Then compare the remaining assemblies on a consistent lifecycle basis and review whether differences are robust to the assumptions that matter most, such as product selection, transport, replacement and end-of-life treatment.
Where a design is still at an early stage, generic factors can inform choices, but record the provisional nature of those inputs. As products are selected, replace generic representations with relevant product-specific EPDs where available. If the exact product is unavailable or its declaration does not represent the project well, explain the limitation and use a clearly stated, fit-for-purpose alternative rather than implying exactness.
Finally, consider the enclosure as part of the building’s overall performance. Thermal behavior depends on design and climate; an embodied-carbon reduction that causes higher operational energy may not be a better whole-building outcome. Equally, potential durability, repair, reuse or recycling benefits should be reflected in realistic project assumptions, not treated as automatic credits.
The sound conclusion is therefore conditional: choose the assembly that meets the project’s functional requirements and has the lower well-supported impact on a comparable, clearly declared basis, while accounting for whole-life performance and uncertainty.
Sources
- RICS, Whole life carbon assessment for the built environment, 2nd edition
- NABERS, The Rules | Embodied Carbon | Version 2.1
- Historic England, The Embodied Carbon Emissions of Construction and Retrofit Materials for Traditional Buildings
- YourHome, Embodied energy
- RICS, Unlocking sustainability: exploring RICS’ whole life carbon assessment (WLCA) standard
Frequently Asked Questions
Does an EPD mean a product is low-carbon?
No. An EPD provides lifecycle information under a defined set of assumptions; it does not label a product as low-carbon or establish that it is preferable for every project. Compare its result with relevant alternatives on the same functional and lifecycle basis.
Can I compare insulation products using kgCO₂e per kilogram?
That unit may describe a product, but it can be misleading if the products deliver different thermal or other performance. For a design choice, compare equivalent functions—such as a stated area of enclosure meeting the project’s requirements—and disclose the basis.
Does stored biogenic carbon stay stored permanently?
A production-stage storage claim does not settle what happens to the carbon over a product’s full life. The EPD’s biogenic-carbon treatment, service-life assumptions and end-of-life scenario are needed to interpret the result.
When should a project replace generic carbon data with product-specific data?
Use generic data when products are not yet selected and the data is suitable for the design decision. Once products are specified, use declarations for the actual manufacturer and product where available, while checking that their assumptions still fit the project.
