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1Scan for outdated or missing drivers - takes under a minute2Repair Windows errors before they cause bigger problems3Fix the driver behind crashes, sound loss and screen glitchesThere is no single best ground-monitoring instrument. Select it by the movement you need to detect: a crackmeter or jointmeter measures opening at a visible crack; an inclinometer finds subsurface lateral deformation and the depth of an active shear zone; an extensometer measures displacement along a defined line; and levelling, total stations, GNSS, laser scanning or InSAR map movement at the ground surface. For consequential slopes, foundations and retaining structures, a defensible program commonly combines surface and subsurface measurements with a site-specific baseline and geotechnical interpretation.
Match the instrument to the movement
Start by describing the observable, not by choosing a product name. Ask whether the suspected movement is across a crack, along a line, sideways below ground, vertically at the surface, or distributed across a whole site. Also decide whether you need relative displacement between two points or an absolute position tied to a survey network.
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| Tool or method | Primary measurement | Depth information | Typical spatial coverage | Useful cadence | Installation and maintenance |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Crackmeter or jointmeter | Opening or closing across a crack, joint or discontinuity; some systems resolve movement in one to three dimensions | Surface only at the instrumented feature | One crack, joint, wall, foundation, retaining structure or rock surface | Repeated manual readings or automatic logging | Usually straightforward mounting; the attachment points and sensor need protection and periodic checks |
| Probe inclinometer | Change in casing inclination in two orthogonal directions, converted to lateral deformation | Profile through the installed borehole or structure | One vertical casing, with multiple readings along its depth | Scheduled surveys, more often during acceleration | Borehole and grooved casing installation; requires competent surveying and data reduction |
| In-place inclinometer array | Continuous or frequent inclination changes at fixed depths | Profile at the sensor locations | One casing or structural line | Frequent or near-continuous logging when connected to a logger or telemetry | Higher installation and instrumentation burden than a manual probe; sensors and communications require maintenance |
| Tape, rod, wire or borehole extensometer | Displacement along a known line between anchors or reference points | At the line and anchor depths; a borehole arrangement can sample below ground | One defined line, tunnel section, slope, foundation or structure | Manual or logged readings, selected for the rate of change | Anchor alignment, reference stability and protection from damage are critical |
| Precise levelling or total station | Vertical settlement and/or surveyed three-dimensional point positions | Surface points only | Point network; can cover many targets from one or more stations | Campaign surveys or automated observations | Requires stable benchmarks, line-of-sight planning and repeatable survey procedures |
| GNSS | Absolute or networked surface position; continuous GNSS can record changes in surface elevation | Surface only | Instrumented points over a broad area | Continuous or scheduled records | Needs suitable sky view, stable monumentation, power and data handling |
| Laser scanning, InSAR or radar interferometry | Spatially distributed surface deformation or change | Surface expression only | From a structure or slope face to a regional area, depending on the method | Repeated scans or satellite/radar acquisition intervals | Coverage, geometry, atmospheric conditions and processing expertise govern reliability |
The table is a selection framework, not a specification sheet. Product precision, environmental durability, telemetry options and allowable installation conditions vary. The searched standards do not publish a single performance figure that can safely be applied to every instrument.
Crackmeters and jointmeters: measure visible opening
Use a crackmeter or jointmeter when the decision depends on whether a visible crack or joint is opening, closing or shearing. Typical locations include masonry and concrete walls, foundations, retaining structures, pavements and exposed rock discontinuities. The International Atomic Energy Agency’s instrument table places crackmeters, jointmeters and tape extensometers in the displacement category and assigns crackmeter/jointmeter systems one- to three-dimensional displacement measurement on structural members, foundations, retaining structures and rock surfaces.
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What the reading tells you
A reading is the relative change between the instrument’s reference points. A rising value can indicate widening; a falling value can indicate closure. If the device is configured to resolve more than one axis, the record can separate opening from in-plane or out-of-plane movement. Always record the sign convention, temperature context and the condition of the mounting surface so that a change in the instrument is not mistaken for a change in the structure.
What it cannot tell you
A surface gauge does not reveal how deep a buried shear plane lies, whether movement continues behind an intact surface, or how far a slope has moved away from the monitored crack. A quiet crack therefore does not prove that the ground is stable. Pair crack readings with survey points, levelling or an inclinometer when subsurface movement is plausible.
Practical deployment
- Map and photograph the crack or joint, including its orientation, length and nearby drainage or construction features.
- Install the two reference attachments on sound material on opposite sides of the feature; do not bridge loose render, spalled concrete or detached rock.
- Take an initial reading after the adhesive, anchors or grout have reached the installer’s specified condition. Record date, time, temperature and any recent loading or rainfall noted by the site team.
- Repeat readings on a schedule matched to the suspected rate of movement. A logger can reduce missed changes where access is difficult; manual readings remain useful when access is safe and the required cadence is low.
- Inspect the mounts and cable or logger enclosure at every visit. A damaged mount, impact or water ingress is a data-quality event that must be logged before interpreting a trend.
Inclinometers: locate subsurface lateral movement and shear zones
Choose an inclinometer when the key question is “where, below ground, is the slope or structure moving sideways?” ASTM D6230 describes a grooved casing with either a traversing probe or an in-place sensor array. Measurements in two orthogonal directions are repeated along the casing and reduced to deformation normal to the casing. Comparing successive profiles shows the depth, direction and rate of change of lateral movement.
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When an inclinometer is the best choice
- Locating an active shear zone in a natural slope, cut or embankment.
- Tracking landslide movement and its direction and rate.
- Measuring lateral spread or settlement-related deformation beneath tanks and embankments.
- Monitoring excavation walls, bulkheads, piles, foundations, dams or structural walls where sideways displacement matters.
ISO 18674-3:2017 covers inclinometer measurements in natural slopes, slope cuts, embankments, excavation walls, foundations and dams, including identification of active shear planes. The ISO page states that this edition was reviewed and confirmed current in 2023.
Probe versus in-place array
A probe system is moved through the casing for scheduled surveys. It can provide a detailed profile when field staff can safely access the installation. An in-place array leaves sensors at selected depths and is suited to frequent observations or remote logging, but it introduces more fixed hardware, power and communications to maintain. The choice is operational: use the probe where periodic access is reliable; use an array where rapid acceleration, difficult access or a need for frequent alerts justifies the additional instrumentation.
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Installation and interpretation steps
- Set the casing alignment and reference orientation during design. The casing must remain coupled to the ground or structure whose deformation you intend to measure.
- Survey or otherwise establish the casing reference and record the probe direction convention. Protect the top from impact, debris and water.
- Complete an initial survey after installation and any installation-induced movement has been accounted for. Treat this as the baseline profile, not as evidence of long-term stability.
- Repeat measurements at consistent depth intervals and in the same sequence. Data reduction converts inclination changes into cumulative displacement profiles in the two measured directions.
- Compare profiles through time. A concentrated change over a depth interval is consistent with a shear zone; a broad, gradual change indicates distributed bending or deformation. Have a geotechnical professional check the interpretation against geology, groundwater, construction stages and surface observations.
ASTM D6230 emphasizes that precision depends on competent personnel and suitable equipment. A numerical trigger copied from another site is not a universal alarm level.
Extensometers: displacement along a defined line
An extensometer is the right instrument when the geometry is known in advance and the important variable is separation or shortening along that line. Tape, rod, wire and borehole extensometers can be arranged between anchors in soil, fill, rock or a structure. ISO 18674-2:2016 specifies measurement of displacements along a line by extensometers for geotechnical monitoring; the ISO page says the standard was reviewed and confirmed current in 2022.
Where line measurements are valuable
Use an extensometer across an opening, between points on an excavation, along a tunnel or underground cavity, through a foundation zone, or across a potentially unstable slope where movement is expected in a defined direction. ASTM D4403 notes applications in tunnels, underground cavities and potentially unstable slopes. A borehole extensometer can separate movement at several anchor depths, while a surface tape or wire arrangement gives a direct line-of-sight or anchor-to-anchor change.
Extensometer or inclinometer?
Choose an extensometer when you need the change in distance between known points. Choose an inclinometer when you need a depth profile of lateral bending and the location of a shear plane. They answer different geometric questions and can be complementary: an inclinometer can identify the active depth, while an extensometer can quantify opening or convergence along a line that matters to the structure or access route.
Installation controls
- Define the measurement line and its positive direction before installation.
- Place anchors in material expected to remain representative of the zones you want to compare; unstable or loose anchor locations can create a false trend.
- Document gauge length, anchor depths, reference points and any thermal or protective arrangement.
- Check that the line is not rubbing, snagging or being loaded by temporary works, cables or vehicles.
- Keep a record of every reset, anchor repair or change in gauge length; those events break the continuity of the time series.
Surface settlement and broad-area movement: surveying and remote sensing
When the requirement is absolute surface position, a network of points or a map of deformation, geodetic and remote-sensing methods are more appropriate than a single local gauge. ISO 18674-9 references tachymeters, levels and GNSS, as well as satellite InSAR, terrestrial radar interferometry and laser scanning.
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Precise levelling
Levelling is suited to vertical settlement questions: how much has a benchmark, slab, tank ring or embankment crest risen or fallen relative to a stable reference? The method is strongest when benchmarks are outside the deforming zone and observations follow a repeatable route. A benchmark that is itself settling can make every result appear stable or exaggerated, so include independent checks where the consequences warrant them.
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Total stations and survey prisms
A total station can observe the three-dimensional position of many prisms or other targets from one or more instrument stations. It is useful for retaining walls, excavations, buildings and slope networks where line of sight can be maintained. Station stability, atmospheric conditions, target visibility and consistent observation geometry determine whether a small change is real.
GNSS
GNSS provides positions at instrumented surface monuments and can support a network over a large site. The U.S. Geological Survey’s August 2024 “Methods of Measuring Land Motion” page distinguishes continuous GNSS from traditional campaign surveying: continuous GNSS produces a continuous record of changes in ground-surface elevation. That continuous record is valuable for detecting timing and acceleration, but it represents the monument’s surface position, not the depth or shape of a buried shear zone.
Laser scanning, InSAR and radar interferometry
Laser scanning can produce dense three-dimensional surface geometry for faces, structures and terrain, allowing repeated point-cloud comparisons. Satellite InSAR and terrestrial radar interferometry can observe spatial patterns over broad areas when acquisition geometry and environmental conditions are suitable. These methods may show where deformation is distributed, but they still need ground control and engineering interpretation to distinguish actual ground movement from changes in visibility, atmosphere, vegetation or processing conditions.
Borehole extensometers in a settlement program
USGS contrasts continuous GNSS surface-elevation records with borehole extensometers that make single-location compaction measurements. Use the borehole instrument when the question concerns compression at a particular depth or location; use GNSS or levelling when the question is the surface response across a network. Combining them helps separate shallow or deep compaction from broader surface translation.
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How to design a monitoring program
1. Define the failure mode and consequence
Write the physical question in one sentence: “Is the foundation settling vertically?”, “Is the retaining wall moving toward the excavation?”, “Is a landslide shear plane deepening or accelerating?”, or “Is the joint opening?” Identify people, roads, utilities, buildings and temporary works that could be affected. Consequence determines how quickly a change must be detected and reviewed.
2. Establish independent references
Every relative instrument needs a reference that is outside the deforming zone or whose behavior is independently checked. Install more than one surface point where practical, and document geology, groundwater, drainage, loading and construction stages. A baseline should include enough observations to distinguish normal seasonal or operational variation from a persistent trend.
3. Combine geometries when the mechanism is uncertain
A practical arrangement for a slope might include survey or GNSS points for surface displacement, an inclinometer to locate subsurface shear, and crackmeters on structures or tension cracks. A foundation investigation might combine precise levelling, borehole extensometers and crackmeters. The instruments should test different hypotheses rather than duplicate the same point without purpose.
4. Set cadence from expected rate and consequence
Match observation frequency to the fastest credible change and the time available to act. Manual readings may be adequate for slow, low-consequence settlement; automated logging or telemetry is more appropriate where access is hazardous or acceleration could occur between visits. State the schedule, responsible person, data-review interval and escalation route in the monitoring plan.
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There is no universal alarm threshold. ASTM D6230 states that precision depends on competent personnel and suitable equipment. Set levels using observed baseline variability, instrument resolution and drift, the rate of change, predicted behavior, and the consequences of movement. Have a qualified engineer approve the levels and the action attached to each one. A useful action plan distinguishes a data-quality check, an engineering review, a site inspection and an emergency response; the numbers are site-specific.
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6. Review trends, not isolated readings
Plot displacement against time and annotate rainfall, groundwater changes, excavation stages, filling, traffic, temperature and repairs. Check whether multiple instruments show a physically coherent pattern. A single jump can be a damaged mount, a reset, a survey error or genuine movement; the response is to verify the instrument and inspect the site before declaring a failure.
Common failure modes and corrective actions
| Observed problem | Likely causes to check | Corrective action |
|---|---|---|
| Crack reading changes suddenly while nearby points do not | Mount damage, adhesive failure, impact, cable movement or an incorrect sign convention | Photograph the installation, inspect both attachments, compare with a manual reference and document any repair before restarting the series |
| Inclinometer profile is noisy or inconsistent between runs | Probe orientation error, incomplete seating in the grooves, casing damage, inconsistent depth interval or data-reduction mistake | Repeat the survey with the same procedure, verify probe calibration and depth control, and have an experienced operator review the profile |
| All survey points appear to move together | Reference benchmark or total-station setup may be moving; atmospheric or geometry effects may also be present | Use independent control, reoccupy the setup, check closure and compare with GNSS, levelling or a stable external reference |
| GNSS or remote-sensing record has gaps | Power, communications, satellite visibility, atmospheric effects or unsuitable acquisition geometry | Mark the gap, recover raw data where possible, inspect quality indicators and avoid interpreting a discontinuous record as a stable trend |
| Extensometer trend changes after site work | Anchor disturbance, altered gauge length, temporary loading or a reference point moved | Record the construction event, survey anchors independently and treat pre- and post-work data as separate segments unless continuity is demonstrated |
Choosing a tool for common reader questions
“What is the best device to detect slope movement?”
For movement below the surface, start with a probe or in-place inclinometer. It provides direction, rate and depth information and is specifically used to locate shear zones. Add surface survey or GNSS points to show how the ground expression relates to the subsurface profile, and add crackmeters where buildings, walls or exposed rock have visible discontinuities.
“How can I monitor foundation settlement?”
Use precise levelling or total-station points for surface settlement and movement across the foundation footprint. Where compression at depth is suspected, add borehole extensometers. Crackmeters can show how settlement is manifesting in walls or joints, but they should not be treated as a substitute for measuring the foundation or ground profile.
“Which instrument finds a landslide shear plane?”
An inclinometer installed through the suspected slide mass is the purpose-built choice. Repeated profiles identify the depth interval where lateral deformation concentrates. Surface GNSS, survey points or InSAR can then map the areal pattern and timing, while geology and groundwater observations provide the context needed for interpretation.
“Can I measure crack widening over time?”
Yes. Install a crackmeter or jointmeter across the feature, establish a baseline, and repeat readings manually or with a logger. Protect the mounts, record temperature and site events, and remember that the result describes the monitored opening at that location; it does not establish the depth or extent of a buried failure surface.
“Do I need an inclinometer or an extensometer?”
Use an inclinometer for a depth profile of lateral deformation and shear-plane location. Use an extensometer for displacement along a defined line between anchors. If both the depth and the line-of-sight change matter, using both can provide a stronger interpretation than forcing one instrument to answer both questions.
Standards and evidence to specify in a project brief
- ASTM D6230: describes inclinometer casing and probe or in-place arrays and lists landslide movement, shear-zone location, embankment and excavation movement, settlement and lateral spread, and structural-wall deflection among typical applications.
- ISO 18674-2:2016: covers extensometer measurement of displacement along a line in geotechnical monitoring; the edition was reviewed and confirmed current in 2022.
- ISO 18674-3:2017: covers inclinometer measurements for slopes, cuts, embankments, excavation walls, foundations and dams, including active shear-plane identification; the edition was reviewed and confirmed current in 2023.
- ISO 18674-9: references tachymeters, levels, GNSS, satellite InSAR, terrestrial radar interferometry and laser scanning for geotechnical monitoring.
- USGS, August 2024: distinguishes continuous GNSS surface-elevation records from single-location borehole-extensometer compaction measurements.
Use the relevant standard to define method, personnel competence, installation records, quality checks and reporting. The standard does not remove the need for a site-specific baseline, consequence-based action levels and engineering review.
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