Potholes form when moisture, traffic, pavement damage and weak support beneath the surface combine to break and dislodge pavement. Freeze-thaw cycles can accelerate the process, but ice is not the only cause. The right repair depends on the pavement, season, traffic and whether the goal is a prompt temporary fix or part of a larger rehabilitation.
How a pothole forms
Asphalt pavement is a layered structure that distributes repeated vehicle loads. Cracks and other surface distress can let water enter; traffic then loads the damaged area, while weakened support beneath it can make the pavement more likely to break and lose material. In cold climates, repeated freezing and thawing can add to deterioration.
The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) describes potholes as generally caused by moisture, freeze-thaw action, traffic, poor underlying support, or a combination of those factors. That is a useful explanation of interacting causes, not a universal sequence that applies to every road or climate. A hole at the surface can be a sign of damage below it, too.
Water does not have to freeze for pavement to fail. Nor does freezing alone explain every pothole. The condition of the pavement and its underlying support, along with traffic and moisture, matters. FHWA’s detailed pothole manual concerns asphalt-surfaced pavements; concrete pavement distress involves different material mechanisms.
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Why potholes grow
Once pavement has broken and material has come loose, the damaged area is exposed to further moisture and repeated traffic loading. If the support beneath the surface is compromised, a patch limited to the visible hole may not address the underlying problem. There is no single growth formula that predicts how quickly every pothole will enlarge: conditions vary by pavement, weather, support and traffic.
How concrete pavement differs
Concrete can also develop holes and deterioration, but its failure mechanisms should not be treated as identical to those of asphalt. FHWA’s concrete guidance describes freeze-thaw deterioration in susceptible coarse aggregate: water absorbed into aggregate particles freezes and thaws, causing the material to deteriorate. This is one material-related mechanism, not a complete explanation for every damaged concrete road.
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What determines the repair
A repair has to suit the condition and purpose of the work. FHWA’s highway-maintenance guidance identifies safety and rideability as reasons to repair potholes, and points to traffic, the timing of planned rehabilitation, available crews, equipment and materials, and public tolerance as considerations. The relevant factors include:
- Season and pavement condition: In winter, the base may be frozen, temperatures are low and more moisture or freeze-thaw cycles may follow. In spring, the base may be wet and soft, with few additional freeze-thaw cycles expected.
- Traffic exposure: Traffic affects both the urgency of addressing a hazard and the conditions in which crews can work.
- Repair intent: A temporary patch to restore serviceability is not automatically a structural repair or a substitute for scheduled rehabilitation.
- Site preparation and compaction: Methods differ in how they deal with water and debris and how the patch is compacted. The pavement and base condition affect whether a surface patch is likely to be adequate.
- Resources and responsibility: Crew, equipment and material availability matter. Public roads and private surfaces also have different responsible parties.
Temporary patching is not the same as rehabilitation
Cold-mix asphalt is one material used for pothole patching. In a 1999 TechBrief, FHWA reported on the SHRP H-106 experiment, which placed more than 1,250 cold-mix patches at eight sites in the United States and Canada from March 1991 through February 1992. The brief describes a method called “throw-and-roll”: material is placed in a hole, which may contain water and debris, then compacted with four to eight truck-tire passes.
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That account documents an agency field method; it does not establish that throw-and-roll is best for every site or offer a safe instruction for the public to repair a road. A surface patch can restore serviceability, but when damage extends into the base or pavement structure, longer-term work may need to address more than the visible hole. Repair choice depends on the particular site; the available FHWA guidance does not identify one universally best method.
What to do about a pothole
On a public road
Report the pothole to the transportation agency or road authority responsible for that road. Do not enter a traffic lane to inspect or attempt a repair. FHWA’s 1999 maintenance manual says potentially hazardous potholes should be repaired promptly once the responsible agency becomes aware of them.
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- All-Weather Application: Designed to work in rain, shine, heat, or cold. Whether you're fixing damage in the middle of summer or patching during fall weather, this patch performs year-round with a strong bond and reliable hold
- Built to Last: Formulated for strength and flexibility, it resists cracking and shrinking over time. Creates a smooth, durable finish that holds up to foot traffic, cars, and harsh weather conditions
- Trusted by Pros for 20+ Years: With over 1 million gallons sold, Liquid Rubber Asphalt Patch is a proven performer. Whether you’re patching your first pothole or maintaining a commercial lot, you’re backed by decades of performance and support
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On a private driveway or paved site
For an authorized owner considering a limited patch, a cold-mix asphalt pothole patch may be relevant, but product suitability depends on the surface, damage and conditions. A patch should not be assumed to correct weak underlying support. For substantial or recurring damage, seek local professional advice about the pavement and whether a broader repair is needed.
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FHWA’s detailed pothole repair manual and patch experiment date to 1999, so they are longstanding maintenance references rather than newly issued standards. FHWA’s pavement maintenance page, updated April 14, 2025, links to maintenance resources. The concrete freeze-thaw guidance is from 2002 and addresses concrete material distress specifically.
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- FHWA: Pavement—Maintenance
- FHWA: Materials and Procedures for Repair of Potholes in Asphalt-Surfaced Pavements—Manual of Practice (1999)
- FHWA: Publication Details, FHWA-RD-99-168
- FHWA: Pothole Repair TechBrief, FHWA-RD-99-202 (1999)
- FHWA: Guidelines for Detection, Analysis, and Treatment of Materials-Related Distress in Concrete Pavements, Volume II (2002)
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