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Repair common Windows errors and clear accumulated junk for a smoother, more stable PC - no reinstall needed.Free scan · no reinstallDo not approve a proposed data center on a low PUE, a “water-free” cooling promise, or a renewable-energy announcement alone. Before construction, require a comparable, site-specific evidence package showing annual and peak water demand, electricity demand by project phase, cooling trade-offs, utility deliverability, permits, life-cycle costs, and a measurement plan. Every number should state its boundary, weather assumptions, operating conditions, and whether it is a forecast, guarantee, or one-time allowance.
DOE’s Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP) cautions that no design guide can identify “the most energy-efficient” data-center design for every scenario. Climate, water availability, grid conditions, reliability requirements, workload, and expansion timing determine which design is appropriate.
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Start with one comparable evidence sheet
Ask the developer to complete the same data sheet for every site, cooling concept, and construction phase. Comparing proposals only by headline efficiency numbers hides the assumptions that drive water stress, grid upgrades, and operating cost.
| Comparison area | Evidence to require | Why it matters |
|---|---|---|
| Water | Source, annual withdrawal, annual consumption, monthly and daily peak, drought restrictions, competing demands, treatment, wastewater, stormwater, discharge route, tariff and capital cost | An annual average can conceal summer peaks, phased load growth, or a supply that is unavailable during drought. |
| Electricity | Annual and peak IT load, total facility load, load profile, interconnection capacity, reliability, power quality, transmission or substation upgrades, schedule and cost | A large data center needs firm, deliverable service, not just an estimate of available generation in the region. |
| Cooling | Alternatives evaluated, modeled water and electricity use under local weather, reliability, maintenance, treatment, discharge and life-cycle cost | Reducing on-site water can increase electricity use or shift water consumption to power generation. |
| Energy supply | Utility service, on-site generation, storage, renewable contracts, firm-power arrangements and carbon-and-water accounting boundary | A clean-energy claim may describe annual certificates rather than the hourly, firm supply the facility requires. |
| Land and permits | Land area, easements, water rights or withdrawal permissions where applicable, water, wastewater, stormwater, air, noise and energy approvals | Unresolved permits can delay construction or force a late redesign. |
| Cost | Capital, electricity, water, chemicals, wastewater, maintenance, replacement, outage and expansion costs over the analysis period | The least expensive building option can create higher operating or infrastructure costs. |
| Accountability | Meter and submeter list, reporting frequency, responsible party, targets, guarantees, commissioning tests and remedy if targets are missed | Without measurements and consequences, a forecast cannot be checked after the facility opens. |
Require the developer to identify the source and date of every external assumption. Local utilities and permitting agencies must confirm site-specific capacity, tariffs, water rights, discharge limits and approval requirements; national guidance cannot establish those facts for a particular parcel.
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Define the project boundary and phases
A data center’s resource demand changes as servers, cooling equipment and support buildings are added. Review the initial build, each expansion phase and the fully built condition separately. For every phase, request:
- IT equipment load, both average and coincident peak;
- total facility load, including cooling, pumps, fans, lighting, security, offices, battery charging and backup systems;
- water withdrawal, water returned to a sewer or surface-water system, and water consumed through evaporation or other losses;
- monthly values and the highest expected day or hour, with the weather condition that produces the peak;
- the date each phase is expected to energize and the period during which unused capacity remains installed; and
- assumptions for rack density, utilization, redundancy, maintenance outages and future technology changes.
Do not let a first-phase average stand in for the ultimate requirement. A site that works for an initial building may not have enough water or grid capacity for later halls, and a utility upgrade scheduled for a future phase can become the critical path for the entire project.
Evaluate the water plan
Separate withdrawal, consumption and discharge
“Water use” can mean different things. Ask the developer to show, in a mass balance, water withdrawn from each source, water delivered to equipment, water evaporated or otherwise consumed, water sent to wastewater treatment, blowdown, leakage allowance and stormwater kept separate from process flows. The plan should identify whether reported figures are site-only or include water used off-site to produce electricity.
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Verify source reliability and competing demands
Identify the source—municipal supply, groundwater, surface water, reclaimed water, rainwater or a combination—and obtain written confirmation of available capacity. Check seasonal restrictions, drought stages, curtailment rules, water-quality limits, treatment chemicals, pressure requirements and the effect of other customers drawing from the same system. Where a withdrawal permit or water right is required, record the issuing agency, quantity, priority, expiration and conditions rather than treating “water available” as a verbal assurance.
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Check treatment, wastewater and stormwater infrastructure
Cooling-water chemistry affects cycles of concentration, blowdown, corrosion and biological control. The design should state pretreatment equipment, chemical storage, residuals, monitoring and disposal. Confirm that the sewer or receiving water can accept the proposed flow, temperature, contaminants and peak discharge. Review stormwater detention, groundwater protection, construction dewatering and flood exposure as part of the same early design package. FEMP recommends considering water supply, wastewater and stormwater at the earliest stages of new-construction planning.
Ask for drought and failure scenarios
Request modeled operation during the design drought, a municipal restriction, a treatment-plant outage and a loss of the primary source. The response should state which loads are curtailed, how long stored water lasts, whether backup cooling is available, and whether emergency water deliveries are practical. A plan that meets an average-year target but has no credible response to a restriction is not resilient.
Compare cooling designs on water and electricity
There is no universally superior cooling system. Compare each alternative with identical IT loads, weather files, redundancy, indoor temperature limits and reporting boundaries.
| Cooling approach | Potential advantage | Questions and trade-offs |
|---|---|---|
| Evaporative or cooling-tower systems | Can reduce mechanical-compressor electricity in suitable climates. | How much makeup water, blowdown and treatment are required at peak conditions? What happens during drought, poor water quality or a tower outage? |
| Dry coolers or air-cooled systems | Can substantially reduce on-site water demand. | What is the electricity penalty on the hottest hours? Does additional power-system capacity increase indirect water consumption at the generation source? |
| Hybrid systems | Can switch between dry and evaporative modes as weather, water availability and grid conditions change. | What control logic triggers each mode, and are water and energy forecasts reported for each seasonal mode? |
| Direct liquid cooling | Can support high-density computing and reduce air-moving energy in some designs. | What heat-rejection system, pumps, filtration, leak detection and maintenance procedures are required? How does the design handle changes in server technology? |
| Reclaimed or alternative water | Can reduce demand on potable supplies. | Is the source dependable in drought, and what treatment, storage, cross-connection protection and discharge obligations apply? |
DOE notes that dry cooling can lower on-site water use while increasing electricity use and potentially shifting water consumption to power generation. Evaluate both direct and indirect effects with local climate, source water, discharge conditions, reliability and life-cycle cost. DOE’s May 2026 siting FAQ says water needs vary with cooling technology and climate, may reach millions of gallons per day, and that advanced cooling can sometimes reduce needs by more than 90 percent; those broad figures have no common project baseline and should not be treated as a typical consumption level.
Use operating examples, not a single design point
Require results for normal weather, the hottest design day, a prolonged hot period, partial IT occupancy, maintenance, loss of a cooling train and a drought operating mode. Show water and electricity for each case. A design that looks efficient at 50 percent load may behave differently near full load or when redundant equipment is running.
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Understand cooling-tower operating levers
FEMP’s January 9, 2019 cooling-water guidance cites an example in which increasing cooling-tower cycles of concentration from three to six reduces makeup-water requirements by 20 percent and blowdown by 50 percent. That is an operational example for a cooling tower, not a predicted whole-facility saving. Ask whether water chemistry, local regulations and equipment warranties permit the proposed cycles, and require the developer to state how the figures were measured.
Test the electricity and grid plan
Request a load forecast with coincident peaks
Obtain annual energy, monthly demand, maximum hourly demand and power factor for IT and non-IT loads. Ask how redundancy, startup, battery charging, generator testing, cooling transitions and future phases affect the coincident peak. The forecast should distinguish connected load from the load the utility has agreed to deliver.
Get written interconnection evidence
Ask the utility to confirm:
- available and deliverable capacity at the proposed point of interconnection;
- substation, transmission, distribution and protection upgrades;
- study assumptions, cost responsibility and payment milestones;
- energization dates for the first building and each expansion;
- expected outage frequency, restoration time and voltage or frequency quality; and
- the process for serving additional phases if the site load grows faster than forecast.
Regional generation capacity is not the same as service at the parcel. A project may require a new substation, transmission reinforcement or power-quality equipment before it can operate at the stated load.
Separate firm power from clean-energy claims
Ask what physically supplies the facility during every hour: utility service, on-site generation, storage, demand response or a combination. Then document renewable contracts, certificates, hourly matching, emissions accounting and water-accounting boundaries. Annual renewable procurement may reduce reported emissions while leaving the facility dependent on the same grid during peak hours. Backup generators should be included in air permits, fuel logistics, testing schedules and reliability calculations.
Use PUE and WUE correctly
Power Usage Effectiveness
PUE is the annual total facility energy divided by annual energy drawn by IT equipment. It includes cooling and other overhead but does not show whether the servers perform useful work efficiently.
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| FEMP 2024 guide label | PUE | How to use it |
|---|---|---|
| Standard | 1.6 | A guide benchmark, not a regulatory threshold. |
| Good | 1.4 | Useful for comparing proposals only when boundaries and conditions match. |
| Better | 1.1 | An ambitious guide benchmark, not a guarantee for a planned site. |
FEMP’s 2024 guide states that an average data center has a PUE of 1.6 and attributes a 2022 large-data-center average PUE of 1.55 to the Uptime Institute’s 2022 Global Data Center Survey. That is a historical benchmark, not a forecast or required target. Require the project to define which buildings, utility losses, generators, batteries and tenant systems are inside the numerator and denominator, and whether the value is measured or modeled.
Water Usage Effectiveness
Site WUE is annual site water use divided by IT equipment energy, expressed in liters per kilowatt-hour. Ask whether the numerator includes only water used on the property or also water used off-site to produce its electricity. A source-based WUE can include that off-site consumption, so two proposals with identical site WUE may have different total water impacts.
Never use a low PUE as proof of low water use, low carbon impact or efficient IT. A water-intensive evaporative system may improve PUE in a hot climate, while a dry system may raise PUE but reduce direct withdrawals. Compare PUE, WUE, IT utilization, carbon accounting and reliability together.
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Require a common financial model covering design, construction, commissioning, operation, expansion, replacement and retirement. At minimum, include:
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- utility connection charges, substation or transmission work and backup generation;
- electricity demand and energy charges, water and sewer tariffs, chemicals, testing and waste disposal;
- maintenance labor, spare parts, planned outages and major equipment replacement;
- costs of drought restrictions, emergency water, curtailment, fuel delivery and power-quality events; and
- the cost and schedule effect of adding later phases or changing rack density.
Ask for sensitivity cases rather than one “levelized” answer: higher electricity prices, water restrictions, delayed utility upgrades, lower-than-forecast IT occupancy, hotter weather and a changed expansion schedule. State the discount rate, analysis period, escalation assumptions and treatment of salvage or decommissioning.
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Make permits and land constraints a design input
Create a permit matrix before site approval. For each approval, record the agency, application, design information required, public-review period, dependencies, expiration and current status. Check, as applicable:
- land-use, zoning, building and site-plan approvals;
- water withdrawal rights, municipal connection approvals or reclaimed-water agreements;
- wastewater pretreatment, discharge and cooling-tower blowdown requirements;
- stormwater, floodplain, erosion and sediment controls;
- air permits for generators and emergency engines, fuel storage and testing;
- noise, lighting, traffic and construction-hour conditions; and
- utility interconnection, transmission, substation and energy-storage approvals.
Do not assume a permit will be issued merely because a similar facility operates elsewhere. Local water quality, watershed rules, land-use conditions and utility processes control the outcome.
Specify meters, reporting and consequences
Include measurement requirements in the development agreement, design criteria and operating contract. The metering schedule should identify:
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- utility electricity at the service entrance and major distribution points;
- IT energy by hall or electrical bus;
- cooling equipment, pumps, fans, treatment and auxiliary loads;
- water inflow by source, cooling makeup, blowdown, domestic use and discharge;
- weather, temperature, humidity, IT load and operating mode needed to normalize results; and
- backup-generator fuel use, run hours and test events.
Define calibration, data retention, cybersecurity, independent verification and reporting frequency. Name who receives the data and who can inspect it. Set commissioning tests and an operating-period verification window. If a target is missed, specify corrective-action deadlines, retesting, financial remedies or limits on expansion. FEMP identifies gaps in component-level submetering as a planning challenge; a whole-building meter alone will not explain why performance changed.
Follow a defensible pre-construction review
- Set the boundary. List buildings, phases, IT loads, support systems, water sources and off-site energy processes that will be included.
- Issue one data template. Give every design team the same weather files, load cases, redundancy rules, reporting periods and metric definitions.
- Collect utility and agency letters. Obtain capacity, upgrade, tariff, water, wastewater and permit information directly from responsible authorities.
- Model alternatives. Compare cooling and power options under normal, peak, drought, outage and expansion scenarios.
- Review the mass and energy balances. Reconcile water withdrawal with consumption and discharge, and IT energy with total facility energy.
- Run life-cycle sensitivities. Test weather, prices, occupancy, restrictions, delays and technology changes.
- Resolve outstanding approvals. Assign an owner and date to every permit, interconnection study, water right and infrastructure commitment.
- Write enforceable requirements. Put meter locations, targets, commissioning tests, data access and remedies into contracts before final design.
- Recheck at each phase gate. Update the forecast when rack density, cooling equipment, utility schedules or water conditions change.
Red flags that require written clarification
- A single annual water number with no peak, monthly profile or drought case.
- “Water-free” or “zero-water” language that excludes power-generation water, backup systems or seasonal evaporative operation.
- A PUE headline without the numerator, denominator, weather, IT load, redundancy and measurement period.
- A renewable-energy promise without firm hourly supply, storage or utility-delivery evidence.
- Generation capacity cited as proof that the local substation can serve the project.
- Cooling comparisons made with different IT loads, weather files, operating modes or accounting boundaries.
- Permits described as “in process” without agencies, dependencies, deadlines and conditions.
- No component submeters, no independent verification and no remedy if forecasts are missed.
- A cost estimate that omits treatment chemicals, wastewater, utility upgrades, maintenance, replacement or expansion.
Decision standard
Proceed only when the proposed site and design have a documented water balance, peak and phased electricity forecast, evaluated cooling alternatives, written utility deliverability, a permit path, a life-cycle cost comparison and an enforceable measurement plan. If any of those items is unresolved, treat the project as conditionally viable rather than assuming the missing evidence will work out during construction.
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