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What earthquake-resistant design is—and what it is not
An earthquake produces rapidly changing ground motion. A building responds according to its mass, stiffness, strength, geometry, foundation and connections, as well as the characteristics of the soil and the earthquake itself. Good design gives the building a controlled way to resist those demands and transfer forces safely to the ground.
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The objective is risk reduction. FEMA’s Earthquake-Resistant Design Concepts (FEMA P-749, November 2022 edition) explains the concepts behind U.S. seismic provisions and their role in minimizing damage and injury. It does not promise that a compliant building will suffer no damage, remain usable after every event or protect every item inside it. Performance depends on the selected code, site, construction quality, maintenance and the actual earthquake.
FEMA describes the professional audience clearly: “The Provisions and the building codes and consensus standards based on its recommendations are technical documents used primarily by the professionals who design and construct buildings and other structures.” Owners should therefore use this article to understand decisions and questions, not to replace a licensed structural engineer, architect, geotechnical professional or building official.
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Which U.S. rules govern a project?
There is no single earthquake checklist that applies to every building in every location. The legally enforceable requirements come from the building code adopted by the authority having jurisdiction (AHJ), together with any amendments and referenced standards. Confirm the adopted edition before a schematic design is finalized.
In the U.S. standards chain, the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP) develops recommended seismic provisions. FEMA P-749 identifies the 2020 NEHRP Recommended Seismic Provisions as the basis for seismic provisions in ASCE/SEI 7-22. The 2024 International Building Code references ASCE/SEI 7-22. That relationship describes a model-code and consensus-standard pathway; it does not mean every state, county or city has adopted the 2024 IBC or ASCE/SEI 7-22.
- Jurisdiction: identify the state, county or city AHJ and its currently adopted building code.
- Edition: record the code and referenced standard editions required for the permit application.
- Amendments: check local amendments, special districts and requirements for essential or hazardous facilities.
- Project team: engage qualified structural and geotechnical professionals early enough to influence the building layout.
For a project outside the United States, use the governing national or regional standard and local approval process. U.S. provisions and terminology should not be transferred automatically to another country.
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How seismic design loads are determined
“Seismic load” is not one universal number. It is a set of design actions derived from the selected standard, the site and the building’s characteristics. USGS code-linked design guidance stresses that engineers should use the seismic design tools and procedures associated with the applicable code. Values from a general hazard map or another USGS tool are not necessarily interchangeable with code-specific design values.
- Establish the governing standard. The engineer confirms the adopted code and referenced seismic standard, such as the edition required by the AHJ.
- Classify the building. Occupancy and risk category affect the consequences considered by the code. Essential facilities and buildings whose failure could create unusual hazards may receive different requirements from ordinary occupancy.
- Characterize the site. Location, mapped hazard, geotechnical information and soil conditions are entered using the procedures required by the selected standard. A geotechnical report may be needed to establish site class, foundations and hazards such as liquefaction or slope instability.
- Obtain code-specific ground-motion parameters. Use the code-oriented USGS or standard-authorized tools identified for that edition. Keep the tool output and input assumptions in the project record.
- Select the structural system and analysis method. The engineer chooses a permitted lateral-force-resisting system and determines whether the code requires an equivalent lateral-force procedure, modal analysis or another method.
- Design the complete load path. Forces must travel from diaphragms and collectors through frames, walls, braces, connections, foundations and supporting soil. Discontinuities, weak stories and unverified connections can undermine an otherwise adequate calculation.
- Detail for ductility and constructability. Reinforcement, anchorage, splices, welds, bolts, boundary elements and confinement must be detailed and inspected as required by the code and project specifications.
Do not publish or reuse a design value without its location, site inputs, risk category, code edition and calculation procedure. A value that is correct for one parcel or edition may be inappropriate for another.
Building characteristics that improve earthquake performance
Continuous and understandable load paths
Every major force needs a defined route to the foundation. Floor and roof diaphragms collect inertial forces; collectors and chords transfer them to walls, frames or braces; those elements deliver forces to foundations; foundations transfer them to the ground. The engineer should identify this path on plans and details, including connections between unlike materials and between new and existing work.
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Regular geometry and balanced resistance
Simple, regular plans and elevations generally make earthquake behavior easier to predict. Large offsets, abrupt stiffness changes, re-entrant corners, transfer levels and open or weak stories can concentrate demands or create torsion. When architectural or operational needs require an irregular configuration, the design team must analyze and detail the resulting effects rather than assume that a stronger member alone solves them.
Strength, stiffness and ductility as a system
Strength limits force, stiffness controls drift and deformation, and ductility allows selected components to deform without brittle failure. A building that is very strong but brittle can fail suddenly; a flexible building may experience unacceptable drift or damage to partitions and equipment. Seismic systems are therefore designed as coordinated assemblies, with intentional yielding locations and protected connections where the standard requires them.
Reliable foundations and site response
Superstructure calculations cannot compensate for an unexamined site. Foundation selection must account for bearing, settlement, overturning, uplift, sliding and the transfer of cyclic forces. The geotechnical team should evaluate site hazards identified by the applicable standard, which can include liquefaction, lateral spreading, unstable slopes or problematic fill. The structural and geotechnical designs must be coordinated; neither should be treated as an isolated package.
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Nonstructural components are part of resilience
People can be injured and buildings can lose critical functions even when the primary frame remains standing. ASCE/SEI 41-23 expressly includes architectural, mechanical and electrical systems in existing-building evaluation, reflecting the wider lesson for new construction as well.
- Anchor ceilings, partitions, façades, parapets, cladding and other falling hazards.
- Brace suspended pipes, ducts, cable trays, lights and equipment so movement does not break supports or connections.
- Provide flexible or protected utility connections where relative movement is expected.
- Secure tanks, batteries, generators, cabinets, shelves and medical or laboratory equipment.
- Protect emergency power, fire-protection, water, communications and other systems needed for continued operation.
- Coordinate architectural joints and clearances so drift does not jam doors, elevators or critical equipment.
Responsibility for these measures should be assigned in the specifications. A structural engineer may design supports while architects, mechanical engineers, electrical engineers, equipment vendors and contractors coordinate the details and installation.
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| Decision area | New building | Existing building or retrofit |
|---|---|---|
| Primary framework | Design to the code and referenced standards adopted by the AHJ. | Evaluate and retrofit under an existing-building standard and the project’s defined performance objective. |
| Hazard and site inputs | Code-specific design ground motions, site data, occupancy and risk category. | Seismic hazard, site and foundation conditions, plus the condition and configuration of the existing structure. |
| Structural scope | Selected lateral system, diaphragms, connections, foundations and detailing designed as one load path. | Existing materials and deficiencies, new strengthening elements, interfaces and foundations. |
| Nonstructural scope | Architectural, mechanical, electrical and equipment anchorage coordinated during design. | Existing nonstructural vulnerabilities assessed and corrected alongside structural work. |
| Performance decision | Code-prescribed objectives for the occupancy and hazard level. | Owner and engineer select a target performance level and seismic hazard level within the applicable evaluation framework. |
How to evaluate and retrofit an existing building
ASCE/SEI 41-23 uses performance-based principles for evaluation and retrofit of existing buildings. Its three-tier process relates the depth of evaluation to performance levels and seismic hazard levels. The standard addresses foundations and geologic site hazards; steel, concrete, masonry, wood and cold-formed steel; architectural, mechanical and electrical components; and seismic isolation and energy-dissipation systems.
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- Define the objective. The owner, design professional and AHJ establish the intended performance level, hazard level, occupancy, continued-use expectations and project constraints.
- Document the building. Collect drawings, previous alterations, material records, geotechnical information and maintenance history. Field verification is essential where records are incomplete.
- Screen for vulnerabilities. Look for soft or weak stories, plan or vertical irregularities, discontinuous diaphragms, inadequate anchorage, deteriorated materials, unreinforced elements and foundation or site hazards.
- Choose the evaluation tier. The engineer selects the appropriate ASCE/SEI 41-23 procedure and analysis depth for the building, objective and hazard.
- Analyze structural and nonstructural components. Check force paths, deformation demands, connections, foundations, equipment and architectural components—not only the main frame.
- Develop and compare retrofit schemes. Options may alter walls, frames, diaphragms, foundations, isolation or energy-dissipation devices. Compare performance, constructability, disruption, approvals and compatibility with existing materials.
- Design, permit and verify the work. Prepare engineered drawings and specifications, obtain AHJ approval, inspect concealed work and update the building record after construction.
There is no universal retrofit prescription or reliable cost figure without a building survey, hazard inputs, target performance and scope. Strengthening one component can shift demand to another, so isolated repairs should not be ordered from a generic checklist.
Choosing among structural approaches
Codes permit multiple structural systems, and this source set does not establish one material or system as universally superior. Selection should follow the building’s height, occupancy, geometry, site, construction market, fire and architectural requirements, and the engineer’s analysis.
| Question | Why it matters | Who resolves it |
|---|---|---|
| What system provides lateral resistance? | It controls strength, stiffness, drift, ductility, detailing and foundation reactions. | Structural engineer with architect and owner. |
| Can the system be built and inspected as detailed? | Seismic performance depends on connections, reinforcement, welding, anchorage and quality control. | Engineer, contractor, special inspectors and suppliers. |
| How will architecture and building services move? | Drift, joints and equipment anchorage affect façades, partitions, utilities and operations. | Architect, structural, mechanical and electrical teams. |
| What happens after the earthquake? | Owners may value rapid reoccupancy, protected equipment or continuous operation beyond minimum life-safety objectives. | Owner with the design team and AHJ. |
Common design and project mistakes
- Using a general hazard map as the design answer: replace it with the code-specific procedure and documented site inputs.
- Assuming the newest model code applies automatically: verify local adoption and amendments with the AHJ.
- Designing only the frame: include diaphragms, collectors, connections, foundations and nonstructural components.
- Ignoring existing conditions: verify dimensions, materials, alterations, deterioration and hidden connections before selecting a retrofit.
- Leaving constructability until bidding: review reinforcing congestion, access, temporary works, inspection requirements and sequencing during design.
- Promising zero damage: state the selected performance objective and its limitations instead of making an absolute claim.
- Applying U.S. guidance abroad: use the code and hazard methodology governing the project’s actual jurisdiction.
A practical project checklist
- Confirm the AHJ, adopted code edition and local amendments.
- Assign occupancy and risk category with the design team.
- Obtain geotechnical and site-hazard information appropriate to the code.
- Record the exact code-specific ground-motion source, inputs and date.
- Draw and review the complete seismic load path.
- Coordinate structural, architectural, mechanical, electrical and equipment requirements.
- Define inspection, testing, special inspection and construction-quality responsibilities.
- For an existing building, establish the ASCE/SEI 41-23 performance and hazard targets before analysis.
- Plan for commissioning, maintenance and post-earthquake inspection of critical systems.
Further reading and professional help
FEMA 232, Homebuilders’ Guide to Earthquake-Resistant Design and Construction, is listed by NEHRP as a named guidance resource for residential construction. Confirm the current edition and availability before obtaining a copy. FEMA P-749 provides a conceptual explanation of U.S. seismic provisions, while ASCE/SEI 41-23 is the relevant professional framework for performance-based evaluation and retrofit of existing buildings. USGS code-linked design-motion resources explain how engineers obtain parameters under the selected design standard.
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