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1Clear out junk files and repair common Windows errors2Fix the driver behind crashes, sound loss and screen glitches3Repair Windows errors before they cause bigger problemsSteel and modular are not opposing materials. Steel is a material and structural solution; modular describes how a building is designed, manufactured and delivered. A modular building may use steel modules, while a conventional project may use a steel frame assembled on site. A defensible comparison therefore compares two complete, functionally equivalent building options—such as a site-assembled steel frame and a specified modular system—using the same whole-life carbon method, boundary and assumptions. Current evidence does not establish a universal carbon winner.
The result depends on quantities, foundations, steel production route, factory energy, transport, site assembly, service life and end-of-life assumptions. The method below shows how to produce a comparison that can support a design or procurement decision without turning a product-stage figure into a misleading building-wide claim.
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What exactly are you comparing?
Start by naming the actual design options, not labels. One option might be a hot-rolled steel frame fabricated and erected on site. The other might be a volumetric modular building manufactured in a factory, transported in sections and connected on site. The modular option could itself contain a steel frame, light-gauge steel, concrete or a hybrid structure.
Write a short description of each option that includes the structural system, envelope, floors, internal partitions, finishes, mechanical and electrical services, foundations and site works. If a structural choice changes any of those elements, include the changed elements in the comparison. Comparing only the steel in one option with only the modules in the other will not produce a building-level answer.
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Use a functional unit that keeps the brief constant
Both options must deliver the same function. At minimum, hold constant:
- usable and gross floor area;
- building use and occupancy;
- thermal, acoustic, fire and structural performance;
- design life or reference study period;
- required durability and maintenance performance;
- planning, access and site constraints; and
- the service level expected from the completed building.
A suitable functional statement could be “the building required by the brief, providing the specified usable area and performance for the agreed reference study period.” Record the dimensions, performance criteria and assumptions so that a later design change cannot quietly alter the basis.
A comparison per kilogram of material is rarely sufficient. Two systems can use different quantities of steel, concrete, insulation, finishes and foundations while providing the same area. A lower impact factor per tonne does not guarantee a lower impact building if the design requires more tonnes or additional construction.
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Choose one whole-life carbon method and boundary
Use the same assessment standard for both options. The Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS) second-edition whole-life carbon methodology follows the EN 15643 framework and the EN 15978 and EN 15804 life-cycle modules. RICS states that its second edition is “In full effect from 1 July 2024” for RICS members completing whole-life carbon assessments. Confirm the current edition and any later updates when commissioning an assessment.
Report modules rather than one unexplained total
A whole-life assessment normally separates impacts into:
- A1–A3, product stage: raw-material supply, transport to manufacturing and manufacturing;
- A4, transport to site: delivery of products or modules;
- A5, construction and installation: site energy, plant, assembly, temporary works and construction waste;
- B modules, use stage: maintenance, repair, replacement, refurbishment, operational water or energy where the chosen scope includes them;
- C modules, end of life: demolition or deconstruction, transport, processing and disposal; and
- D, benefits and loads beyond the system boundary: potential future reuse, recycling or recovered-material benefits.
For a new-build decision, state whether the headline is upfront embodied carbon—often A1–A5—or a broader life-cycle result including relevant B and C modules. Do not compare one option on a cradle-to-gate basis with the other on a cradle-to-grave basis. Keep module D separate from the A-to-C total; a speculative future credit must not conceal high upfront impacts.
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State the reference study period
Use the same reference study period for both systems. A modular building with a short first use followed by relocation should not automatically receive a second-life benefit unless that future use is part of the stated scenario. Likewise, a steel frame should not receive a recycling or reuse credit without an explicit end-of-life route.
A step-by-step comparison workflow
- Define the two designs. Freeze the brief, area, performance, service life and site constraints. List every element that changes between options, including foundations, floors, cladding, services, access roads and temporary works.
- Select the assessment standard. Use one whole-life carbon methodology, module definitions and calculation rules for both designs. Document any deviation from the chosen method.
- Create bills of quantities. Measure the actual mass, volume, area or unit count of each material and component. Separate structural steel from reinforcement, decking, connections and secondary steel. Measure complete modular units and their factory-installed contents where relevant.
- Assign product data. Use product-specific environmental product declarations (EPDs) when the product and source are known. Match the declared unit and life-cycle modules to the quantities. At early design, use a suitable generic or representative factor, record its geography and data year, and replace it with procurement data as the design is bought.
- Calculate A1–A3. Apply the selected factors to the quantities for materials and factory products. Check that an EPD already includes processes you are about to add separately, avoiding double counting.
- Calculate A4. Add transport from plant or supplier to site for both options. For modules, record module dimensions, number of loads, payload utilisation, route and transport mode. For steel, record the mill or fabricator location and delivery route.
- Calculate A5. Include factory-to-site assembly boundaries correctly, then add site cranes, lifting, welding, bolting, connection work, temporary works, site energy, packaging and construction waste. Apply the same accounting rules to the site-built and modular options.
- Model B modules. Use the same reference study period and include maintenance, repair, replacement and refurbishment. A component that lasts 20 years in one option cannot be assumed to last for the full study period in the other without evidence.
- Model C and D scenarios. Describe deconstruction, transport, processing, disposal, reuse and recycling routes. Present D separately and show the assumptions that make a future benefit possible.
- Run sensitivities. Vary the assumptions most likely to change the ranking, such as steel production route, steel quantity, foundation design, transport distance, factory energy, service life and reuse probability.
- Report results by module and element. Show impacts for the same functional unit, data source, geography, data vintage and confidence level. Explain which assumptions drive the result.
Collect steel data that represents the specified product
Steel impacts vary substantially with production route, scrap input, electricity mix, fabrication and supply chain. A product-specific EPD is preferable when the grade, section, manufacturer and source are known. If procurement is not fixed, use a representative factor that matches the intended geography and state that it is provisional.
The Steel Construction Institute report SCI P449 illustrates the scale of route differences with source-specific EPD examples. Its table reports an A1 value of 0.524 tCO₂e per tonne for cited 100% scrap-based electric arc furnace (EAF) hot-rolled sections and 2.45 tCO₂e per tonne for cited blast-furnace/basic-oxygen-furnace (BF-BOF) hot-rolled sections. These are A1 product-stage values for the listed EPDs, not universal steel factors and not results for complete buildings. Retain the product, route, module, unit and source context whenever quoting them.
The factor is only one part of the calculation. Multiply it by the steel quantity actually required by each design, then add fabrication, delivery, erection and all consequential changes to other elements. An EAF section imported over a long distance can have a different delivered result from a locally sourced section; the route, distance and transport mode must be modelled together.
Questions to ask about a steel EPD
- Does it describe the exact product or a representative product?
- Is the declared unit one tonne, one kilogram, one metre or another unit?
- Which modules are reported—A1 only, A1–A3, or A1–C and D?
- What production route, scrap content, electricity mix and geography does it use?
- What is the publication or data year?
- Are fabrication, coatings, cutting losses or transport already included?
Account for the modular factory and the journey to site
Factory production can improve quality control and reduce some site waste, but it does not make carbon impacts disappear. Include factory energy, materials, prefabricated assemblies, coatings, packaging and factory waste within the appropriate product or construction modules. Check the EPD boundary so that factory processes are neither omitted nor counted twice.
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For the site-assembled steel option, include mill-to-fabricator and fabricator-to-site transport where applicable, fabrication energy, cutting losses, paint or galvanizing, cranes, welding, bolting, temporary works and site waste. Use actual contractor information as it becomes available rather than assuming that factory or site assembly has no impact.
Include foundations, floors and other consequential quantities
Foundation design can change the result materially. A lighter superstructure may reduce piles, ground beams or concrete, while concentrated module loads, transport access or tolerances may require a different foundation solution. Measure and model the foundation that each complete design needs.
Do the same for floor build-ups, fire protection, acoustic layers, façade systems, service risers, stairs, balconies and connection details. A modular design may arrive with more finishes and services installed; those materials belong in its inventory even if they are not visible in the structural description.
Compare use, durability and end of life on equal terms
Service life and maintenance
Set a common reference study period and use evidence for replacement intervals. Include repainting, corrosion protection, sealants, membranes, finishes, plant and other components that are replaced during the period. If a modular unit is designed for repeated relocation, document the number of moves, refurbishment between uses and any replacement of connections or finishes.
Disassembly, relocation and reuse
Relocation can be significant for a modular system, but it is a scenario, not an automatic credit. Count it only where the modules are designed for disassembly, connection details permit removal, lifting and transport are feasible, a future user or site exists, and the expected demand is credible. Include refurbishment, storage, transport and installation for the next use.
For steel, distinguish direct component reuse from recycling. Reuse requires suitable sections, safe removal, testing, storage and a receiving project. Recycling requires collection, processing and a defined allocation method. Report any avoided-product or recovered-material benefit in module D, outside the A-to-C total.
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Present the result in a transparent table
A decision-maker should be able to see both the number and its basis. A useful reporting layout is:
| Comparison item | Site-assembled steel option | Modular option | Required disclosure |
|---|---|---|---|
| Functional unit | Same agreed building function | Same agreed building function | Area, use, performance and reference study period |
| Structural and consequential quantities | Frame, connections, floors, foundations and affected elements | Modules, chassis or frames, finishes, services, floors and foundations | Bill of quantities and measurement units |
| A1–A3 | Product and fabrication impacts | Factory manufacture and incorporated products | EPD or factor, geography, route and data year |
| A4 | Mill, fabricator and site deliveries | Module transport and intermediate handling | Distance, mode, payload and number of loads |
| A5 | Erection, cranes, temporary works and waste | Lifting, assembly, connections, site works and waste | Contractor method and waste assumptions |
| B modules | Maintenance, repair and replacement | Maintenance, refurbishment and relocation-related work | Intervals and reference study period |
| C modules | Deconstruction, transport, processing and disposal | Deconstruction, transport, refurbishment, processing and disposal | End-of-life route and allocation method |
| D | Potential reuse or recycling benefits | Potential relocation, reuse or recycling benefits | Scenario, probability and separate reporting |
If a value is not established, label it “not stated” and identify the missing input. Do not fill an unknown with a zero.
Test the assumptions that can reverse the ranking
Early estimates should be ranges or scenarios, not false precision. Run at least the following cases:
- Steel route: product-specific EAF and BF-BOF data where both are plausible;
- Steel quantity: the current design quantity plus a reasonable design-development range;
- Foundations: alternative foundation solutions where loads or access could change them;
- Transport: local and imported supply, different distances and realistic payloads;
- Factory energy: the supplier’s declared energy basis versus a conservative representative factor when the supplier is unknown;
- Construction: actual crane, lifting, temporary-work and waste assumptions;
- Service life: alternative replacement intervals for finishes, envelopes and services; and
- End of life: conservative disposal/recycling, credible reuse, and modular relocation scenarios.
Report which variables change the ordering of the options. If the ranking changes under plausible assumptions, the correct conclusion is that the decision is sensitive—not that one system has a fixed carbon advantage.
Common comparison errors and how to correct them
Calling “modular” a material
Error: comparing “steel” with “modular” as though they were mutually exclusive. Correction: compare a defined steel-frame design with a defined modular building design and disclose the material in each.
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Using tonnes of steel as the whole answer
Error: applying one steel factor without checking quantity, foundations, floors or transport. Correction: calculate complete bills of quantities for the same function.
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Mixing life-cycle boundaries
Error: comparing one option’s A1–A3 result with another’s A1–C or A1–D result. Correction: use identical modules and show D separately.
Assuming factory production means zero site impact
Error: omitting module transport, cranes, connections, temporary works or packaging. Correction: model A4 and A5 for both options and check EPD boundaries.
Turning a future benefit into a guaranteed credit
Error: awarding modular relocation or steel recycling benefits without a credible receiving project or recovery route. Correction: state the scenario, include its costs and impacts, and report it in D.
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Treating generic data as procurement certainty
Error: presenting an early-design factor as the impact of the product that will be bought. Correction: disclose geography and data vintage, then update the model with supplier EPDs and transport details.
How to reach a decision without overstating the evidence
Use the base case to compare the two complete designs, then show the sensitivity cases beside it. A robust recommendation can say that one option has a lower A1–A5 result under the stated sourcing and logistics assumptions, while another performs better when a credible reuse scenario is included. It should also identify the assumptions that must be protected during procurement—for example, a specified steel route, a maximum delivery distance, or a verified modular take-back arrangement.
No aligned, general statistic establishes that modular buildings are lower carbon than steel frames, or that steel frames are always lower carbon than modular systems. The defensible answer is project-specific: define equivalent function, use one whole-life method, measure complete systems, include delivery and construction, test service life and end of life, and publish the assumptions with the result.
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