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Steel is an iron-based alloy containing less than 2% carbon. Manufacturers make it either by reducing iron ore and refining the resulting hot metal in a basic oxygen furnace (the BF–BOF route), or by melting recycled steel and other metallic inputs in an electric arc furnace (EAF). The molten steel is then cast, reheated and rolled into products such as coil, plate, sections, bars, rebar, wire rod and coated sheet.
The route matters because it determines the main metallic inputs, energy source and potential emissions profile. Neither route is a single universal recipe: plants adjust their charge mix, refining practice and downstream equipment to the available materials and the required steel grade.
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What steel is and why the manufacturing route matters
Pure iron is relatively soft for many engineering applications. Steel is an iron-based alloy whose carbon content remains below 2%; producers also control other elements and add alloying materials to achieve the chemistry required for a particular grade. Steelmaking is therefore a controlled conversion: oxygen and unwanted impurities are removed from ore-derived iron, or an existing steel charge is melted and refined so its composition meets a specification.
World Steel Association (worldsteel) describes the central distinction this way: “The key difference between the routes is the type of raw materials they consume.” That difference affects furnaces, energy demand, the amount of scrap a plant can use and the way emissions should be compared.
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About 70% of global steel is made through BF–BOF plants and about 30% through EAF plants, according to rounded worldsteel shares on its current process overview. These are global proportions, not a rule for every country or mill.
The two main steelmaking routes at a glance
| Feature | BF–BOF integrated route | EAF route |
|---|---|---|
| Primary metallic input | Iron ore is reduced to hot metal or pig iron; recycled steel is also charged. | Mostly recycled steel, with direct reduced iron (DRI) or hot metal added when needed. |
| Main furnace operation | A blast furnace makes carbon-rich hot metal, followed by refining in a basic oxygen furnace. | An electric arc furnace melts and refines the metallic charge. |
| Potential scrap share | Up to 30% of the metallic input in the BF route. | Up to 100% scrap, subject to quality and availability. |
| Downstream operations | Casting, reheating, rolling and, where required, coating or other finishing. | |
The percentages describe technical potential, not the charge used at every site. Scrap quality, furnace design, product chemistry and local supply all affect the practical mix.
Raw materials used to make steel
Integrated plants rely on iron ore, metallurgical coal, limestone and some recycled steel. Coal is heated without oxygen to make coke. Coke supplies heat and acts as a reductant in the blast furnace, helping remove oxygen from iron oxides. The result is hot metal containing substantial carbon, which must then be refined into steel.
EAF plants normally begin with recycled steel. They may add DRI, which is iron made by reducing ore without melting it, or hot metal when the scrap charge alone cannot provide the required chemistry, density or productivity. Oxygen and alloy additions are used during refining in either route.
Worldsteel publishes illustrative material averages for producing 1,000 kilograms of crude steel. They are route averages rather than engineering specifications for a particular furnace:
| Illustrative charge or input | BF–BOF average per 1,000 kg crude steel | Recycled-steel EAF example per 1,000 kg crude steel |
|---|---|---|
| Iron ore | 1,370 kg | 586 kg |
| Metallurgical coal or coal | 780 kg metallurgical coal | 150 kg coal |
| Limestone | 270 kg | 88 kg |
| Recycled steel | 125 kg | 710 kg |
| Electricity | Not stated in this illustrative BF–BOF row | 2.3 GJ |
The EAF example includes both recycled steel and ore-derived inputs; it is not a claim that every EAF load uses those exact quantities. In the same way, a BF–BOF plant can vary its ore, coal, limestone and scrap rates.
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How the BF–BOF route makes steel
1. Prepare coke and the furnace charge
Metallurgical coal is heated in the absence of oxygen to produce coke. The coke is strong enough to support the burden in the blast furnace and supplies the heat and chemical reducing power needed for ironmaking. Iron-bearing materials, coke, limestone and selected recycled steel are prepared as a controlled charge.
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Hot air is introduced into the blast furnace. Carbon-bearing gases generated from the coke remove oxygen from iron oxides in the ore. As the burden descends and heats, the iron melts and collects as hot metal. Because this iron absorbs carbon in the furnace, hot metal is not yet the finished steel grade.
3. Transfer hot metal to the basic oxygen furnace
The basic oxygen furnace (BOF) receives the hot metal and may also receive scrap. High-purity oxygen is blown into the vessel. Oxygen lowers the carbon level and oxidizes unwanted elements; the resulting reactions provide much of the heat needed to melt the added scrap and complete refining.
4. Adjust the chemistry
Samples are checked and alloy additions are made so the liquid steel approaches the chemistry required for its intended grade. The exact additions and treatment depend on the product specification. A plant may also perform further ladle treatment, but there is no single universal detailed sequence across all integrated mills.
How the EAF route makes steel
1. Load the metallic charge
Operators load sorted recycled steel into the EAF. DRI or hot metal can supplement the scrap. The balance is chosen to supply enough iron, control residual elements and meet the required productivity and grade chemistry.
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2. Melt with an electric arc
Electrodes create an electric arc above or through the charge. The arc supplies the principal melting energy, while oxygen and chemical reactions contribute additional heat and help refine the bath. Electricity demand varies with scrap condition, furnace practice and the amount of non-scrap metallic input.
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3. Refine and tap the steel
During the heat, operators remove or control unwanted elements, adjust carbon and temperature, and add alloys. Once the analysis and temperature are suitable, the furnace is tapped into a ladle. Further chemistry or temperature adjustment can occur before casting.
An EAF is not automatically a “scrap-only” process. Although it can use up to 100% scrap, plants may need DRI or hot metal when scrap supply, residual elements or product requirements make a fully recycled charge unsuitable.
What happens after the furnace: casting and rolling
Molten steel becomes a semi-finished shape
Steel leaving the refining stage is still liquid. It is cast into semi-finished forms that can be handled by the rolling mill. Casting solidifies the heat while preserving the chemistry established in the furnace and ladle. The detailed equipment arrangement differs by plant, so a single prescribed casting sequence should not be assumed.
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Solid steel is reheated when necessary and passed through rolls that reduce thickness, change cross-section or both. Rolling converts crude steel into saleable forms such as coil, plate, sections and bars. Product dimensions, surface condition and mechanical properties depend on the rolling schedule and subsequent cooling or treatment.
Finishing and coating add the final function
Some products leave the rolling mill as bare steel. Others receive downstream processing, including coating. Product families named by worldsteel include rebar, wire rod, galvanized sheet and tinplate, in addition to coil, plate, sections and bars. Coating and finishing are separate value-adding stages; they do not change the fact that the material began as refined and cast steel.
Steel products supplied to construction and manufacturing
| Finished form | What the form describes |
|---|---|
| Coil | Flat steel rolled and wound for later processing or direct use. |
| Plate | Flat, relatively thick rolled product supplied as individual pieces. |
| Sections | Rolled structural profiles with a defined cross-section. |
| Bars | Long products with a solid cross-section. |
| Rebar | Reinforcing bar supplied for concrete reinforcement. |
| Wire rod | Round or similarly shaped rolled product intended for further drawing or forming. |
| Galvanized sheet | Sheet steel with a zinc coating for improved surface protection. |
| Tinplate | Sheet steel carrying a tin coating. |
“Crude steel” refers to steel at the production stage, not to a finished building component. A construction buyer therefore needs the product form, grade, dimensions and any coating or finishing requirements, not just the name of the furnace route.
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How scrap fits into both routes
Recycling is built into both major routes. Scrap can be charged alongside hot metal in a BOF, and EAFs can theoretically operate with an entirely scrap-based metallic charge. Using scrap reduces the need for virgin ore and some associated processing, but it cannot by itself satisfy current global demand.
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Scrap quality also matters. Mixed or contaminated scrap can introduce residual elements that are difficult to remove and may restrict the grades a heat can produce. Sorting, preparation and the addition of cleaner metallic units help a mill meet chemistry limits.
Emissions: compare routes only with a stated boundary
Worldsteel reports average steel-production emissions of 2.18 tonnes of CO2 equivalent per tonne of steel in 2024 when scopes 1, 2 and 3 are included. That figure is an industry average with a defined accounting boundary; it is not a timeless footprint for every BF–BOF or EAF plant.
Ore-based production—whether iron is made in a blast furnace or by DRI before BOF or EAF refining—has most of its emissions associated with making iron from ore. Scrap-based EAF production avoids that ore-reduction step, but its result still depends on electricity generation, scrap preparation, alloy inputs and the rest of the assessed system boundary.
The 2026 worldsteel life-cycle-inventory release uses 2024 data and covers 16 products. It draws on reports from more than 160 sites representing over 356 million tonnes of production. Those figures improve transparency, but they do not turn route averages into a guaranteed result for a named mill, country or product.
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When comparing an environmental claim, check four items together:
- Whether the steel was made by BF–BOF, EAF or a route using DRI and another furnace.
- The metallic charge, especially the proportions of scrap, DRI, hot metal and ore-derived iron.
- The electricity and fuel context, including how power emissions are treated.
- The system boundary and scopes included in the calculation.
Why plants use different recipes
A route label identifies the principal furnace arrangement, not every operation in a mill. Two EAF plants may have different scrap grades, DRI shares, electricity mixes and product ranges. Two integrated plants may use different ore qualities, coal rates, scrap additions and rolling equipment.
Availability is a major constraint. An area with abundant obsolete steel and low-carbon electricity may support a high-scrap EAF operation. A region with limited scrap but established ore, coal and processing infrastructure may rely more heavily on BF–BOF. Product chemistry can also limit the amount of residual-bearing scrap that a heat can accept.
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How much steel the world makes
Worldsteel reports 1,882.6 million tonnes of crude steel production in 2024. This is a global total at the crude-steel stage. It includes steel that will later be cast, rolled, coated or otherwise processed into the finished forms used by construction, manufacturing and infrastructure.
Because steel remains in service for long periods, annual production, annual scrap availability and annual demand are different measures. A high production total does not mean an equivalent amount of scrap becomes available in the same year.
Quick Recap
A concise process summary
- Prepare inputs: supply ore, coke-making coal, limestone and recycled steel for BF–BOF, or prepare scrap with DRI or hot metal as needed for EAF.
- Make metallic iron or melt the charge: reduce ore to hot metal in a blast furnace, or melt metallic inputs with an electric arc.
- Refine: use oxygen and controlled additions to remove unwanted elements and bring carbon and alloy chemistry toward the target grade.
- Cast: solidify the liquid steel into semi-finished forms.
- Roll and finish: reheat and roll into coil, plate, sections or bars, then apply coating or other downstream treatment when specified.
- Deliver the product: verify the finished form and required chemistry, dimensions and surface treatment before it enters construction or another manufacturing process.
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